https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=16&v=HvDz4MrYXNc India's authorised requirement is a total of 42 fighters Squadrons. Even after MoD's planned fighter acquisitions by 2030 is completed, IAF will still be short of 108 fighters in total. 18 fighters constitute a squadron. IAF had vacancies for 621 officers. China's military budget now is an estimated $250 billion to $300 billion a year on its armed forces. Since China has both bigger budget and military industrial base, the three Indian armed services must agree to adopt integrated operations plan for contingency scenarios. The importance of Indian Army is greater when one needs boots on the ground. Air power is the primary tool to achieve tactical gains. The essence of Air power is effective targeting which depends on accurate, actionable, and real-time intelligence. Besides acquiring actionable real-time intelligence and facilitating targeting, you also need to provide the superior kinetic weapons means for the destruction of targets. At the same time, IAF must transfer its light helicopters to Indian Army Aviation Corps (AAC) and focus on creating combat search-n-rescue (CSAR) capabilities. In the past, the Indian Army took the lead in any land battle with air-support, however, unlike China (which lacks modern fighter jet engines to carry out high-altitude, offensive ops), India's Air power arm is the most ready to play a decisive role in any offensive & defensive 'integrated' future conflict with China. India needs affordable strike fighters, but that can survive inside well-defended enemy airspace. Russian fighter jets with IAF are good dog-fighters, but American fighters and AMRAAM combo of PAF excel with network-centric (data-link sharing target info) AWACS support. F-16 has been in service for 44 years, as it had less wing load and higher weight to thrust. PAF have 18 F-16 Block 52. It faces obsolescence by 2030 but is getting spares from US. Also, PAF F-16 has access to surveillance pod as it is now owned by Turkey. Turkey has long had one of the largest F-16 fleets in the world and because they belonged to NATO, the Turks had to achieve high standards of pilot training. "All fighter aircraft that performed well against a competent opponent had several characteristics in common: a) relatively low cost, b) easy maintenance, c) small size and low weight, d) comparatively good aerodynamic performance, the acceleration to the speed of sound is considered an important performance metric & is dependent upon its high-speed drag problem, e) good situational awareness with passive sensors is more useful than stealth". US air combat doctrine emphasizes maintaining a high-energy state, besides BVR missile attacks. Fighter maneuvers leveraging thrust-vectoring drain an aircraft's energy very rapidly, leaving it in a low-energy state vulnerable to follow-on attacks. This was allegedly a downside exploited by U.S. F-15 jets in a Red Flag exercise against thrust-vectoring Indian Air Force Su-30MKI jets in 2008. The recent air-operations in a potentially dangerous environment with more advanced aircraft and ground air defence systems, together with the number of air forces which want to enhance their air superiority capabilities with the acquisition of modern platforms or retrofitting of in-service combat aircraft, is revitalizing the interest towards air-to-air missiles as future threats emerge. However, data sensor fusing, including the helmet mounted display systems, and the capability of these weapon systems to be part of the network is essential to the success of air superiority and defence operations. In October 1997, Volvo confirmed that Saab, General Electric, Daimler-Benz Aerospace (DASA) and Boeing led talks on the X-31 VECTOR program. The Rockwell-MBB X-31 was an experimental highly-agile or super-maneuverable aircraft from US-American - German co-production learned from Rockwell's Super Normal Kinetic Enhancement (Snake) . The aircraft on the basis of TKF-90. Germany wanted to use the test flights in order to obtain the thrust vector technology in the Euro Fighter and Sweden in the JAS 39 (to catch up with Russia). The US Navy had the F-18 in mind, on an application in the Air Force (F-15/16) has been speculated.
"Turning in a tight turn has absolutely nothing to do concerning maneuverability. A comparison of roll is the most important attribute an airplane must posse in being more maneuverable than another one." During the 1980s, the ageing, less agile interceptor aircraft were replaced by dedicated air-to-air fighter aircraft. The argument for having a large fighter aircraft is that physics makes larger aircraft more capable. Assuming that a smaller aircraft and a larger aircraft have a very similar lift to drag ratio, cruise at the same Mach number and have the same specific fuel consumption, the larger fighter will have about 40 percent better range. An inevitable consequence of the physics of flight is that long range aerial combat demands larger airframes and two engines. These fighters shoot missiles and fire guns because they are designed to engage enemy fighters within visual range during combat operations. This close-range combat is referred to as combat aircraft dog-fighting operations. Dedicated air-to-air fighters include the US F-14 Tomcat, the British F3 Tornado, and the Russian MiG-29 FULCRUM. During the 1990s, dual-purpose aircraft that can drop bombs as well as dogfight were seen in increasing numbers. These are known as fighter-bombers or strike fighters. The best fighter-bombers in service include the US F/A-18 Hornet and the Russian Su-27 Flanker aircraft. F-15E internal gun is under its right wing which creates an imbalance whenever 220 kg bombs are dropped above 30,000 feet. Ironically, its being used as missile truck (dropping from lower altitudes) due to its powerful f100 engines & advanced electronic jammers. The F-14A and F-15A were both designed with lessons from the Vietnam War. When we see turn rates, rate of climb and avionics, the F-16 was utterly superior to the MiG-23MF and even to the MiG-23MLD, however the F-16 had a vital weakness from 1974 to 1992, this weakness was it never had BVR missiles until the first AIM-120 and AIM-7s were deployed in the late 1980s and early 1990s. If we are to believe the Russian sources we have to see that in 1983, the MiG-23ML was armed with a better radar and R-24s of longer range almost matching the F-15s capabilities, and the F-16s in 1982 could not match the R-23T with an AIM-9L. The MiG-23MLD was considered in some parameters almost an equal to the F-16 but it never was considered superior, just that it closed the gap between the third and fourth generation. One of the MiG-23`s excellent characteristics was the use of Head Up Display radar imagery. From 1979-81, Israeli F-15s would claim several Syrian Air Force fighters during operations over Lebanon. The high point of Israeli F-15i operations would come in 1982, with the massive air battle over the Bekaa Valley. Flying top cover for the massive ground strike below, F-15i with extensive jamming and AWACs support claimed upwards of 80 aircraft in the two-day long battle for no losses of their own. (Mitsubishi licence-build U.S. F-15J Kai upgraded to "Super" JSI standard ) F-2 Support Fighter F-15J and its upgrade F-15J Kai (Eagle) are identical to F-15C/D aside from the ECM, radar warning system, and nuclear equipment. The AN/ALQ-135 Internal Countermeasures System is replaced by the indigenous J/ALQ-8 and the AN/ALR-56 Radar Warning Receiver is replaced by the J/APR-4. The engine is the Pratt & Whitney F100 turbofan, produced under license by Japan. F-2 was so expensive that japan only obtained 94 examples of planned acquisition of 144. F2 has a defective AESA radar due to design error which is too expensive to rectify. Japan has also been forced to develop its own fly-by-wire software by the US Government's refusal to release the F-16s computer source codes. The F-2 program was controversial because the unit cost, which includes development costs, is roughly four times that of a Block 50/52 F-16, which does not include development costs. Japan owns about 200 F-15J (based on the F-15C/D, produced under license by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries), of which 98 F-15J fighters will undergo JSI (Japanese Super Interceptor) modernization process from 2023. The system upgrades will not only dramatically improve the capabilities of this weapons system but will also significantly enhance its air-to-surface capability. This also aligns with the Japan's existing plans to only replace around half of its F-15J fleet with F-35s and continue flying the upgraded F-2 multi-role fighters for the foreseeable future.
The upgrade package notably lacks any mention of other features like wide-panel cockpit displays, heads-up-displays, and IRST sensors; as they could possibly be sourced from Mitsubishi. The F-15C/D upgrade into Advanced Eagle 2040C would be most useful applied to F-15s updated to the so-called "Golden Eagle" standard, which fits a new AN/APG-63(V)3 active synthetically scanned array (AESA) air-to-air radar to the fighters. The relatively small number of F-22s in service makes it more likely the F-22 would be outnumbered in any future fight. But there are hundreds of F-15s still in service. Boeing's solution: Make the F-15 a missile truck with more than a dozen AMRAAM missiles. The Advanced Eagle upgrade consists of four so-called "quad pack" hardpoints on the wings, each capable of carrying four AMRAAM missiles for a total of 16. Unlike with USAF F-16 fleet, F-15E is being equipped with AN/APG-82(v)1 [formerly, called AN/APG-63(v)4] and F-15C/D with AN/APG-63-(V)3
Very low-level for combat aircrafts means 150 feet above ground, while sea-skimming can mean 5 metres above water. For aircraft that cannot go faster than the speed of sound, a short inlet works quite well but for a supersonic aircraft, the inlet must slow the flow down to subsonic speeds before the air reaches the compressor. While the inlet does no work on the flow, inlet performance has a strong influence on engine net thrust. Air inlet that uses flat-hinged 'splitter plates' (or a central-cone) been the norm for supersonic fighters. Alternatively, forward swept intake design also keep boundary layer air away from the inlet and to slow supersonic air entering the inlet to supersonic speeds. The idea is to provide uniform airflow through the entire intake opening without the air from the aircraft's surface mixing with the boundary layer air which can have both different velocity and flow direction. Airflow mis-match can lead to large drops in engine efficiency and thrust instability due to spillage drag. Air intake ramp at an acute angle deflects the intake air from the longitudinal direction. The lip is sharpened to minimize the performance losses from shock waves that occur during supersonic flight. Return of canard fins stabilizersThe Wright Brothers began experimenting with the "canard" or foreplane configuration around 1900. Their first kite included a front surface for pitch control and they adopted this configuration for their first Flyer. They were aware that Otto Lilienthal had been killed in a glider with an aft tail, due to a lack of pitch control. They expected a foreplane to be a better control surface, in addition to being visible to the pilot in flight. After 1911, few canard types would be produced for many decades. First flown in 1927, the experimental Focke-Wulf F 19 "Ente" (duck) was more successful. Two examples were built and although one crashed for unrelated reasons, the second example continued flying until 1931. Just after the end of World War II in Europe in 1945, appeared the lightweight MiG-8 "Utka" test aircraft. But it was not until 1967 that the Swedish Saab 37 Viggen became the first canard aircraft to enter production. This spurred many designers, and canard surfaces sprouted on a number of designs derived from the popular Dassault Mirage delta-winged jet fighter. The development of fly-by-wire and artificial stability produced a new generation of modern canard designs. However, canard aircraft have poor stealth characteristics because they present large, angular surfaces that tend to reflect radar signals forwards. Canards used in J-20 are not found on the US F-22 and F-35 and the Russian Su-57 stealth fighters. J-20 canard's reflected radar signals are very very well blended with its main wing's reflected radar signals, and due to their high swept angle, the first high radar cross-section spike of J-20 actually located at around 50 degrees boresight. This mean it is very easy for J-20 pilots to keep enemy adversary within their stealthy sector. Add to the fact that J-20 has very big antenna aperture, it can be highly lethal in BVR combat. J-20 is aimed at larger area airspace denial rather than an air superiority fighter per se. A senior designer said that the J-20 multi capacities would be used at the most crucial moments during a war and will depend on its production numbers and deployment scale. With China’s J-20 fighters in development, as well as the sheer numbers of third-generation fighters, forming its main strategic combat force, along with early warning aircraft, electromagnetic interference systems and airborne warning and control systems, China will have a clear advantage over Japan in any potential air battle. If the J-20 is equipped with China’s fourth generation active electronically scanned array radar, and this equals the APG-77 with which the F-22 is equipped, the aircraft will be able to detect an F-35A head on at a distance of 50 km, whereas a F-35A will only be able to detect a J-20 head on at a distance of 20-40 km, giving the J-20 the advantage. Perhaps the J-20 as a secondary role is meant a stealthy strike aircraft like the F-117 which was very successful bomb delivering strike fighter. "Euro-canards" is a general term used for the group of European-developed fighter jets, like Eurofighter Typhoon, SAAB Gripen and Dassault Rafale. An inertial navigation system (INS) is a navigation aid that uses a computer, motion sensors (accelerometers) and rotation sensors (gyroscopes) to continuously calculate via dead reckoning the position, orientation, and velocity (direction and speed of movement) of a moving object without the need for external references. It is used on vehicles such as ships, aircraft, submarines, guided missiles, and spacecraft. Outsmarting the know-how denials imposed by the West under the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR), Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) developed in India are steadily finding a confirmed seat onboard multiple military platforms. The Research Centre Imarat (RCI) in Hyderabad today seems to have graduated in all the major technology areas of navigation, including sensors, SATNAV (satellite navigation) receivers, navigational aids, algorithms\schemes for different applications and infrastructure development. In the process, India has elevated its status on par with a handful of nations possessing a wide spectrum of sensor technologies. Turkey has long had one of the largest F-16 fleets in the world, with about 240 F-16s currently in service. Because they belonged to NATO, the Turks had to achieve high standards of pilot training, especially the number of flight hours per pilot per year and the number of pilots per aircraft. Turkey lost (through dismissal or resignation) 274 combat pilots. This reduced the ratio of pilots per F-16 from 1.25 to .8. This pilots per aircraft ratio is important because aircraft can fly more frequently per day than one pilot can handle. F-16 Block 70 Fighting Falcon or 'Super Viper' is a lightweight, daytime, multi-role jet fighter aircraft. The F-16 disproved the adages that bigger size and more expensive systems were better, that sophisticated systems rarely worked; by using the Energy-maneuverability positioning advantage theory. It has 25% lower wing load and higher weight to thrust ratio than Mig-25 Foxbat. F-16 can climb to an altitude of only 50,000 feet, whereas the Mig-25 interceptor can fly at 65,000 feet. It was designed exclusively for air combat maneuvering and added technological upgrades over the years have increased its weight and reduced its main purpose. This involves replacing the mechanical radar with AN/APG-82(v)1 [formerly, called AN/APG-63(v)4] AESA radar, an upgraded cockpit, a Sniper targeting pod, a Link 16 digital data link and upgraded navigation gear. F-16s design would face obsolescence beyond 2030. The production is scheduled to halt in 2017 after 44 years. Originally designed as a successor of the F-5 and a cheaper alternative to the heavier F-15, F-16s were mainly used for air defense. F-16 was designed to be widely exported to US’s third world allies and has hundreds in storage, available for sale on the used warplane market. This fighter was born in response to LWF (Light-Weight Fighter) program, for a small and agile fighter: the USAF needed a small, cheap, maneuverable airplane to flank the F-15 Eagle, its air superiority fighter, to face the small Soviet fighters, such as the MiG-21 in close combat. TFX to implode into one of the most infamous debacles in Pentagon’s history due to technical problems, cost overruns, and schedule slippages. The result was the super-costly single-mission (deep strike), single service, swing-wing F-111. Planes were delivered without mission essential avionics and sat on the runway for two years awaiting parts. Production rates were slowed, and total production quantities were reduced from 1,500 to 500. That cutback would have worked materially to wreck tactical fighter aviation in the Air Force, had it not been for the intervention of a brilliant iconoclastic band of military officers and civilians, who became known in the Pentagon and industry as the Fighter Mafia. The latest F-16V configuration integrates Northrop Grumman-developed new advanced APG-83 active electronically scanned array (AESA) Scalable Agile Beam radar, which was concluded in August 2014. It also includes a new cockpit Center Pedestal Display; a modernized mission computer; a high-capacity Ethernet data bus; and several other mission system enhancements. However, the F-16V has the lowest service life. F-16V Block 70 is similar to the F-16E Block 60 “Desert Eagle” the UAE has been using since 2005. The Israeli version of the F-16 is in the same class as the Desert Eagle and uses a lot of Israeli developed tech. The most advanced F-16 is still the Israeli F-16I, which is optimized for bombing. The F-16I is equipped with a more advanced radar (the APG-68X) and has an excellent navigation system, which allows it to fly on the deck, at night or in any weather, without working the pilot to death. Israeli f-16I has advanced jamming and avionics systems, but are largely tasked with ground attack. The F-16I can carry enough fuel to hit targets 1,600 kms away. Electronic countermeasures are carried, as is a powerful computer system, which records the details of each sortie in great detail. Israel has received 102 new F-16I fighter-bombers already and added to this are another 125 older F-16s upgraded to the F-16I standard. There are actually six major mods, identified by block number (32, 40, 42, 50, 52, 60), plus the Israeli F-16I, which is a major modification of the Block 52. The new cockpit features a 15cm x 20cm/6x8 inch flat screen display that replaces dozens of gages and switches. The F-16D is a two seat trainer version of F-16Cs. The various block mods included a large variety of new components (five engines, four sets of avionics, five generations of electronic warfare gear, five radars and many other mechanical, software, cockpit and electrical mods.) Some nations, like South Korea, build the F-16 under license. The other special version (the Block 60), for the UAE, is called the F-16E. It costs $5.6 million to train F-16 pilots. It costs $22,000 per flight hour for ground missions. The F-16C was originally designed for a service life of 4,000 hours in the air, but advances in engineering, materials, and maintenance techniques have extended that to over 8,000 hours. It has a readiness rate of 70%. F-16 manufacturer Lockheed Martin has delivered more than 4,500 fighters to 28 international customers, including the Pakistan Air Force (including 18 Advanced F-16C/D Block 52+). They have launched a new pitch that include moving F-16 production to India for a heavily modernized spinoff dubbed the F-21. The F-16s, with Pakistan since 1980, have been used against India in the past. Pakistan also said that Islamabad retains the right to use "anything and everything" in its self-defence. Pakistan's F-16 programme is an important part of the broader US-Pakistan bilateral relationship. The F-16s have been a big worry for India since they were first given to Pakistan as a reward for assistance in the first Afghan war. The last skirmish between India and Pakistan on 29 February 2019, where PAF used F-16s to bring down a MiG-21 flown by Indian Air Force Wing Commander Abhinandan Varthaman. https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/us-defends-f-16-jet-fleet-to-pak-to-deal-with-clear-terrorist-threats-3383279 F-16 internal-mounted reconnaissance pod was sold from Denmark's Terma to Turkey's Aselsan. Terma has also developed wing-pylons containing UV-sensors AAR-60-(V)2 MILDS and ALQ-2 Electronic Warfare (EW) systems for 30 Danish F-16s. While Belgian F-16s have UV-sensors AAR-60-(V)2 MILDS-F MAWS developed by Airbus brand called Hensoldt (now includes Cassidian). MQ-16 Lawn Dart & QF-16 Jet Converted Unmanned Flight During a high-intensity war with a near peer, adversary like China, around 100 aircraft could be lost in a single day of combat. The US Air Force is eying a fleet of 1,000 drone wingmen in its airpower — without breaking the bank. The US's Replicator hedging strategy aims to churn out many thousands of low-cost unmanned systems, for different domains, that are meant to help overcome masses of ships, missiles, and people. You have to balance the tradeoff of size, weight, power and cost. A drone could be put by special forces, sleeping until it's ready for use. It could come out to provide precision and navigation when needed. It could fly a life vest down to a downed pilot or a radio to a downed pilot. It could actually fly down and survey the runway which you're about to land on. It could serve as a decoy or jammer. What to look for on Replicator is "small, smart, cheap and many" existing systems that could potentially "move the needle" in the Indo-Pacific which allows you to do it again and again and again, and break down systemic barriers along the way. The unmanned F-16 drone need software that would allow it to fly in formation execute attack missions on its own, use its sensors to avoid ground fire (mainly missiles) and using its own EW (electronic warfare) to deal with jamming interference. It was noted that with a little extra work, the QF-16 could be turned into a combat UAV for dangerous missions like SEAD (suppression of enemy defenses) or attacking ground targets guarded by heavy air defenses. Adding more sensors and flight control software could produce a formidable combat UAV. The F-16 manufacturer (Lockheed) is not doing the UAV conversion research, but rather another aircraft company (Boeing) which sees a potential market for such aircraft. These UCAVs (Unmanned Combat Aerial vehicles) already exist as the MQ-1 Predator and MQ-9 Reaper. But an MQ-16 Lawn Dart (the unofficial nickname for the F-16) would be cheaper. Japan's Fighter Support Experimental (FS-X) is the larger and heavier cousin of F-16C Agile Falcon with larger wings in order to carry more fuel and load but as a result it has more drag. Hence, composites wings were added to give it strength while reducing the weight and drag. Mitsubishi’s heavy use of graphite epoxy and co-cured composite technology for the wings encountered some teething problems, but proved to be a leading-edge use of a technology that provides weight savings, improved range, and some stealth benefits. Other FSX structural design changes include radar-absorbent material (RAM) applied to the aircraft's nose, wing leading edges and engine inlet, the use of titanium in the tail and fuselage, the addition of a braking parachute and a two-piece canopy reinforced against large bird strikes. US is refusing to allow the export of a component that is needed for the SCALP-er / Storm Shadow cruise missiles Arme Propulsee A CHarges Ejectables (APACHE AP) project by MBDA. Egypt refuses to buy more Rafales unless the deal includes SCALP missiles. India had bought 200 of both Meteor and SCALP-er / Storm Shadow cruise missiles. Rafales Tranches:
The aircraft's stealthy features include reduced size of the tail-fin, fuselage shaping, under-wing air intake positioning, extensive use of composites, and serrated patterns for the construction of the trailing edges of the wings and canards. In an age of stealth however, radars are no longer the only kind of sensor that find pride of place in a combat jet's tracking and scanning systems. Fighter aircraft today sport increasingly capable electro-optical tracking systems that are merging together the functions of the TV telescope, infrared search and track (IRS&T) and forward looking infrared (FLIR) into a single device. The technological enabler for this synthesis is the emergence of the Indium Antimonide single chip Focal Plane Array (FPA) camera. This camera type can be used for passive IRS&T searches, as well as to 'stare' at a specific target for beyond visual range (BVR) identification and targeting. Rafale is designed for reduced radar cross-section (RCS) and IR signature, though it does not feature all aspect stealth. Rafale’s canopy is also coated with gold, which reduces RCS signature from rather uneven cockpit innards, while protrusions are used to hide gap between canards and the airframe. Many RCS reduction features are classified. Advantages include demonstrated carrier capability in the Rafale-M, which could be a very big factor if the RFP includes that as a requirement. If so, it offers superior aerodynamic performance vs. the F/A-18 family, has exceptional ordnance capacity for its size, and can have its range extended via conformal fuel tanks. The Rafale M weighs about 500 kg more than the Rafale C. For carrier operations, the M model has a strengthened airframe, longer nose gear leg to provide a more nose-up attitude, larger tailhook between the engines, and a built-in boarding ladder. One sees this merger in the optronique secteur frontal (OSD) long range video system of the Dassault Rafale. The narrow field of this sensor coupled with visible waveband capability enables the identification of targets in situations where visual contact is required by the rules of engagement. The OSD also allows target tracking, through both the IRS&T as well as visual sensors and the FLIR function can apparently be used to detect air targets at ranges up to 100 kms away. The Armement Air-Sol Modulaire (Air-to-Ground Modular Weapon) (AASM) is a French Precision-Guided Munition developed by Sagem Défense Sécurité. AASM comprises a frontal guidance kit and a rear-mounted range extension kit matched to a dumb bomb. The weapon is modular because it can integrate different types of guidance units and different types of bombs. This firing test demonstrated the AASM Laser’s ability to offer 1-meter accuracy against high-speed, agile land or maritime targets. New capabilities that might be incorporated into the Rafale could include operating unmanned aerial vehicles, thrust vectoring for improved maneuverability, and conformal radar antenna arrays located all around the air-frame. The MiG-21 fleet is large – almost 15 squadrons, or nearly 300 aircraft. The fleet is also far down the road towards obsolescence. The window of opportunity for the IAF to replace the fleet without dangerous depletion of its force levels is now small. India's Medium Multi-Role Combat Aircraft (MMRCA) requirements were first felt after Kargil War, An aircraft which had the ability to multi-role between Air to Ground roles to Air to Air roles while flying same mission. IAF back then had recommended purchase of more modern Mirage-2000/V aircrafts since IAF had required skilled manpower and infrastructure already in place since it already operated Mirage-2000s in its fleet. After the US (F-16 & F-18), Swedish (Gripen) and Russian (MiG35) firms were ejected from the bidding process, the IAF zeroed in on Europeans’ Eurofighter Typhoon and French Dassault’s Rafale. The French finally hit the IAF jackpot on January 31 this year. Other European countries, especially Britain, lamented the decision: “Why French, why not us? Our fighter is better than theirs.” Moreover, some Indian defence analysts questioned the IAF’s decision to select Rafale, which the French have not been able to sell to any other country. Eurofighters, on the other hand, have already been acquired by the air forces of 6 countries. There are also reports that doubt India’s move to waste billions of dollars on a 4th-generation fighter at a time when it has received America’s offer to make it a partner in the development of its fifth-generation fighter — F35 Lightning II. India is insisting that Dassault Aviation, which manufactures Rafale, cannot renege on the guarantee clause and Request for Proposal (RFP) clauses, which it had initially agreed to. The unwillingness of Dassault Avions, the Rafale manufacturer, to guarantee the performance of this aircraft produced under licence at Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd despite the original RFP (Request for Proposal) requiring bidders to transfer technology, including production wherewithal, procedures and protocols, to this public sector unit for the aircraft’s local assembly, has been reported. Dassault Aviation selected Reliance Industries Limited (RIL) as its private sector partner to manufacture the Rafale Combat jets in India trying to bypass Government-owned Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) as the production house. This was the first deviation of RFP clauses. Then Dassault Aviation blamed that Hindustan Aeronautics Limited doesn’t have proper infrastructure to build and absorb Transfer of Technology (TOT) fully aware that HAL was building Russian Sukhoi-30MKI in Country , while RIL had not even taken up any aviation Projects in the country let alone manufacturing of 4++ Generation fighter aircrafts. Second deviation was guarantee clause which was part of RFP which was placed so that HAL made jets covered Delivery schedules set by MOD and IAF and meet Product quality. While many blamed HAL over the issue and argued how Dassault Aviation should be liable to Delivery schedules and meet Product quality (from production costs to maintenance to performance) when they were not manufacturing them? Indian government had told that if delays happens due to HAL they won’t be any penalties for Dassault Aviation, but they refused and prolonged negotiations. Dassault, in turn, did not want to take responsibility for manufacturing delays at HAL. It is easy to pin the blame on Dassault for delays and all that has gone wrong in the deal. As it is a government-to-government deal, India should be able to get these “strategic purchase” aircraft cheaper. The negotiations over price are still on but experts estimate at least a 10% lower price for these 36 aircraft. With limited funds available for capital acquisition in the defence budget, monetary considerations are an important factor in any major Indian procurement. They claimed that while the deal was initially for about Rs 40,000 crore, French are seeking a higher price now. This, the sources said, has put the price at a “little more than double the cost”, a deal-breaker in a contract for 108 aircraft. The initial price difference with the second bidder was razor thin. India could not afford 126 Rafales as the purchase would cost more than about Rs 90,000 crore. The final all-in price for 36 warplanes is likely to be in the range of 65,000 crores or nearly $10 billion, which includes the cost of 36 fighter jets in fly-away condition, weapon systems, and a support maintenance package. That is an astronomic Rs 1,320 – 1,660 crore per aircraft. Therefore, India is pressing for more add-ons like maintenance infrastructure at the airbases, increased tenure for serviceability, etc. India still needs to decide whether it will immediately fund a large order of all spare parts that the aircraft will need for a period of either five or ten years. The Air Force wants the French to guarantee that at any given point, at least 90% of the fleet should be fit for combat. This is against the 55% availability rate of the Russian Su 30 MKI fighter. The price would depend on the support package and the length for which the Air Force wants it. For a 10-year package, the cost will be higher as more spares will need to be sourced. India wants the same availability rate for the fighter that the French Air Force has. Another point of contention is the guarantee clause under which Rafale has to stand guarantee for the planes that would be manufactured by state-owned HAL. India is haggling over the labour cost parameters that are graded from 1 to 10. While the Russians had obtained Grade 6 for the Su-30MKI licence-production programme, the French were asking for 8, while the Indians wanted it to be limited to 7. The so-called licence-production of Rafales just to keep a few thousand employees of HAL gainfully employed will not lead to self-reliance of any kind. For Prime Minister Narendra Modi, neither option was great: Continue negotiations with France on a fighter jet deal he couldn’t afford, or go for a smaller agreement that could undermine his “Make in India” policy. The move to all but kill India’s biggest defence purchase in five decades reflects the dire state of both the nation’s armed forces and its manufacturing capabilities. The multi-billion dollar MMRCA contract was to be a springboard for galvanising India’s aerospace industry. Buying 36 fully built Rafales would only benefit that of France. Also, Dassault aviations lackluster attitude and lazy response is quite legendary in France and a survey done by a French media house had said that many in France didn't believe that Dassault aviation ever be able to crack a deal with India. Rafale's performance details:-
"Defence Analyst now believe that Excercise Indradhush was all about informal pitting of India’s Sukhoi against Eurofighter to decide whether to accept German offer of reconsidering on Eurofighter aircrafts after it lost the MMRCA Bid to French Rafale. Few Weeks later after Excercise Indradhush the German Ambassador to India officially announced that German Government’s decade-long Eurofighter Typhoon fighter plane campaign in India was over, bringing end to their MMRCA Competition." Eurofighter Typhoon (Tranche 3) During the 1970s, Germany understood that future fighters would need to achieve high agility as well as the ability to fly at high angles of attack. These capabilities required an unstable aircraft configuration. In 1974, in order to address the need to test how a highly unstable supersonic jet fighter equipped with a proper redundant flight control system would fly, the German Ministry of Defense authorized MBB to proceed with the so-called Control Configured Vehicle (CCV) program. Germany and Spain’s Airbus Defence and Space owns 46%, Britain’s BAE Systems owns 33% and Italy’s Leonardo owns 21%. It is a £80 million, twin Eurojet EJ200 engine, canard-delta wing, high-agility strike fighter but limited ground attack capability. It has at supersonic speed and ’supercruise’ capability. It is also an ‘energy fighter’ meaning it has the ability to preserve energy during sustained turns rates when most aircrafts lose energy and lose altitude. This 23 ton aircraft will be the principal fighter in the air forces of Britain, Spain, Germany, and Italy. The aircraft is very expensive to maintain. Typhoon suffered from an overly democratic concept-definition process, whereby compromise was put ahead of overall effectiveness. Though excellent for its day, the cockpit is a generation behind. While the Eurofighter is mainly an air-superiority fighter, there is very little call for that sort of thing at the moment. However, the fighter has a 25° angle of attack limit. Ground attack, on the other hand, is very much in demand. Typhoon enjoys a good thrust-to-weight advantage but Typhoon greatest weakness remains its mechanically scanned radar, a 20th century technology. Typhoon still does not have an AESA, is something of an embarrassment to Eurofighter Typhoon, but at least the it carries the best mechanically-scanning Captor-M radar in the world. Future Typhoons will carry the Captor E ‘Radar Plus One’, a new pivoted wide-view AESA. The "Phase 1 Enhancement" implements full air-to-surface capability to provide the fighter with a “swing-role” capability to carry both air-to-air and air-to-surface weapons. It included full integration of the Rafael Litening III targeting pod and capable Diehl IRIS-T short-range air-to-air missile in addition to the MDBA Asraam, air-to-surface helmet-mounted display symbology, Mode 5 secure identification friend-or-foe, and MIDS updates and cockpit direct-voice interaction improvements. Tranche 3 aircraft will incorporate production upgrades being developed under the Phase 2 Enhancement (Evolution 2 Package) program. The Tranche 3 updates adds defensive aids subsystem, high-speed data network, fiber-optic weapons bus, and is fitted for, but not with, conformal fuel tanks and an AESA radar. A new internal structure in the nose section was designed to accommodate wirings, power, cooling and electronics for the new Euroradar E-Captor AESA radar. Its has larger radar, but that doesn’t matter because nobody sane is going to use radar in air-to-air combat, however, it has integrated Storm Shadow and Meteor long-ranged anti-AWACS cruise missiles. Tranche 3 Typhoons have these capability to mount AESA radars and CFTs, but these items do not come standard. 2014 a German Defense Ministry readiness report was leak said that only 8% of 109 Eurofighters were full operational at any given time. It is common in European nations for the Defense Ministry to eventually discover that a shortage of spare parts and years of poor management practices led to the parts shortage and the low readiness levels. So when it comes time to make budget cuts, spare parts for the Eurofighter, and fuel to get pilots in the air for training, are among the first things to go. In 2009 Germany and Britain decided to cut back on the number of Eurofighters they would buy. South Korea's KF-21 Boramae (Hawk or Falcon) KF-21 (earlier known as KF-X or IF-X) is a South Korean program to develop an advanced 4.5th gen multi-role fighter for the Republic of Korea Air Force (ROKAF) and Indonesian Air Force (TNI-AU). It is currently seen as a single seat 24 ton fighter with two engines and 10 pods, the ability to carry more than 6 tons of weapons. With a maximum payload of 7,700 kg, the KF-21 will be capable of flying at 2,200 kmph with a flying range of 2,900 km. KF-X Block 2 would have some of these weapons can be carried in an internal bomb bay, increasing stealthiness. However, South Korean defence ministry is not demanding a full stealthy design but few low-observable characteristics. South Korean Air Force plans to induct 40 KF-21 units by 2028 and another 80 units by 2032. The overall focus of the program is producing 120 fighters with higher capabilities than a KF-16 class fighter. KAI executives have long regarded ADD's plan to develop a twin-engine Typhoon-size KF-X as too ambitious. KF-X is intended to be superior to the KF-16, replacing South Korea's ageing F-4D/E Phantom II and F-5E/F Tiger II aircraft, with production numbers estimated to be over 250 aircraft. US has denied the export of four major technologies citing US technology protection policy (including the AESA radar system, electro-optical targeting pod, IRST and radio frequency jammer for self-defense), out of 25 core technologies promised for the South Korean fighter jet project, that were to been transferred with the purchase of with the 40 F-35. South Korea would like to integrate AIM-9 and AIM-120 missiles already in use by the Korean air force, but the licenses to integrate them have been denied by the US. It has managed to source a terrain-following system designed to enable ground-hugging low-altitude flying from Israeli firm Elbit. The KFX is based on only costing $60 million each. South Korean analysts pointed out that the KFX would cost up to twice as much as a top-of-the line model of the F-16 bought from the United States. Critics also pointed out that Japan made the same mistake in the 1990s when they decided to develop and build the F-2. However, the KAI's KFX-E design should be cheaper to develop and build than the larger proposals put forward by the ADD. The Agency for Defense Development (ADD) envisions Collins Aerospace is under contract with Korea Aerospace Industries (KAI) to provide the fighter’s complete integrated Environmental Control System (ECS), including air conditioning, bleed air control, cabin pressurization and liquid cooling systems. According to Hanwha Systems (formerly Samsung-Thales) R & D Center, it is currently working on at least 6 systems which will compose the backbone of the KF-X: the AESA-MMR; EO-TGP; Mission Computer; Infra-red Search & Track System (IRST); Panoramic Multi-Function Display; and an Audio Communication Control System (ACCS). In 2020, South Korea abandoned its plan to build AESA-MMR and has signed a technology support contract with IAI's ELTA Systems. The ADD has abandoned a push to develop the radar on its own despite a partnership in 2016 with Hanwha Thales, a local defense firm later renamed Hanwha Systems, as the preferential bidder for the radar development. In return for obtaining 40 Lockheed Martin F-35 Joint Strike Fighters, South Korea was supposed to receive technologies from “17 sectors” related to its long-planned KFX indigenous fighter programme. However, in 2015 US refused to approve 4 key technologies from Lockheed Martin to KAI, there were: AESA radar, infrared search and track (IRST) sensor, electro-optical targeting pod and electronic warfare jammer. South Korea will ask Lockheed Martin to invest in the country’s next-generation KF-X multi-role fighter jet development project as part of offset deals. KAL appears to be proposing a design based on the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, which industry officials say Boeing is pushing with backing from Airbus. Airbus and Boeing are joint KF-X proposal is an attempt to unseat Lockheed Martin from South Korea’s KF-X indigenous fighter program, offering an economical alternative and technology from Europe that could not be supplied from U.S. sources. Boeing suggested technology transfer from Israel Aerospace Industries. In May 2017, Israel’s ELTA Systems was selected to support the AESA radar development. Saab still has a $25 million contract inked in December 2017 with LIG Nex1 for cooperation in AESA radar algorithm development. The KFX is expected to enter service in about 10 years now that the government has found the cash and foreign partners to make it happen. Indonesia is a partner with 20% share in the program. Indonesia first agreed in 2010 to jointly develop the KFX. That deal fell apart because of costs, as did several similar deals with other countries. The cost problem is less of an issue now. Indonesia will be a partner in this effort by contributing 16% of the $8.5 billion required. Indonesia had failed to make its annual payment to participate in the development program. Turkey is referred to as a potential partner, but there has been no tangible progress over the Seoul-Ankara discussions. Turkey is said to demand that it take more control over the project than a 20% share. Reports of Indonesia losing interest in the IF-X project have been exacerbated by its consideration of the French Rafale or Boeing F-15 EX combat jets to quickly refurbish its fleet in the face of from China. Electronic beam-steering/scanning antenna based on its high-tech communication, sensor and ICT capabilities developed by Hanwha The main error was committed by the IAF and Indian MoD when they selected Mirage-2000 and MiG-29B in 1985, but in 1996 the IAF's ASQR specified DRDO to design a light combat aircraft to replace these two medium-weight combat aircrafts. There have also been too many instances, when the Indian MoD has denied funding to IAF regarding imports, on the behest of DRDO. MCW-AF (earlier known as Tejas Mark II) primary mission will be strike fighter (that falls inbetween F-5 fighter and tornado fighter) carrying Israeli targeting pods, towed decoy system and infrared search and track (IRST) system. ADA has a small pool of manpower of aircraft designers, so a lot of discussions were held with the air force and navy to get them to agree on the commonality of three fighter jets that ADA is working so that workload can be reduced on their development time and also agree to same systems and subsystems. It will be the only aircraft in its class that can carry 8 air-to-air missiles (Astra-1 & AIM-132 Block-6) with 3 Drop tanks. It will be optimised for balakot-like, high-altitude, precision ground-attack missions against: a) artillery and mortar pits situated in narrow stretches between hills in Indo-China (Bhutan to Uttarakhand), and b) to kill terrorists in Indo-Pak border before they ever get the chance to cross the border. Imported F414 cost about $4.8 million each, not including spare parts. It looks like MCA-Af (Tejas Mk.2) could be underpowered with F-414 engine. We may need F-414 'Enhanced Engine' which has 105-kN of dry thrust and 116kN of wet thrust (using afterburner). Even Gripen has foreign systems, including its engine. It will have Israeli missile-warning radar and will carry Israeli internal jammers. And until there is the serial-production of the indigenous Uttam radar, India has no other choice but to import more Israeli ELM-2052 (which has only 320 transmit/receive module (TRM) elements). It's the test pilots and the late Manohar Parrikar as India's defence minister, who's strategic thinking transformed the original LCA into a highly enhanced Mark-1A version. We need such thinking for MCF too. Bomber pilots are far more expensive to train, too. For the fighter design to be accepted by the IAF, the fighter must have low-maintenance and have good spare parts availability. The fighter's situational awareness and availability rate, will be compared to the latest F-16 fighter. It may also get Auto-GCAS and Auto-ICAS systems. India imports the resins used in manufacturing of composite end-products.
India requires a total of 756 fighters, out of which 324 MRCAs to act as tactical interceptors. The active mode of operation of certain parts of operating software (made by US-based OEM) in Western military aircrafts, that are necessary to perform at max levels, requires crypto-keys regulated by the strict US export-control laws. Indian Navy's Twin Engine Deck Based Fighter (TEDBF) based on "Super Tejas" with close-coupled canard fins stabilizers The Indian Navy wanted ADA to develop a carrier deck version of the Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA), an indigenous, twin-engine, fifth-generation, stealth fighter that is unlikely to enter service before 2030. In 2019, Indian Navy decided against a navalised variant of the AMCA because it had reasons to believe that the AMCA project was over-ambitious. That prompted ADA to come up with the Twin-Engined Deck-Based Fighter (TEDBF) with canard fins stabilizers. Due to its twin-engine configuration, the aircraft is larger than the Naval Tejas. The ADA chief has argued to the defence ministry, the need for a step-by-step incremental and realistic approach to naval first designing an optimised naval Tejas Mark II fighter design, rather than attempting a huge technology jump by designing a fifth-generation Naval AMCA. Only the third TEDBF will be involved in deck-based carrier take-offs and landings, while the first two aircraft will be used for flight certification and testing of the systems and sub-systems. The 26-ton Twin Engine Deck Based Fighter (TEDBF) will also be able to undertake MUM-T maritime strike sorties along with unmanned airborne surveillance vehicles. Indian Navy has indicated that it would like to procure close to 100 TEDBF. ADA has identified Wing folding Mechanism for Indian Navy's TEDBF, as one of the major challenges, since India has never worked on it previously. F-14A Tomcat with all 6 AIM-54 Phoenix missiles (Iran's Fakour-90 long-range missile is almost identical to the US AIM-54 Phoenix) The NATF Super Tomcat offerings were very high performance aircraft, but the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet outclassed them in operational and acquisition costs and offered better multi-role capabilities. Being considerably smaller, more number of Super Hornets could be carried on a carrier when compared to the F-14A Tomcat. Two-thirds of the fighter aircraft of the US Navy (60%) and USMC Aviation (74%) are out of service. This translates to 1,700 aircraft forced to land for the US Navy, including 600 F/A-18 Hornet. Following closely the example Hornet, of the 276 aircraft owned by the Marine Corps, only 87 are able to fly. Despite the similar name, the F-18E is actually a different aircraft, with a different engine, that entered service in 2001. GE Aviation won the contract worth $1.65 billion for the repair, upgrade or replacement of 17 F414 engine components in support of US Navy's F/A-18. F/A-18E/F Super Hornet is a 4.5+ generation, carrier-based multi-role fighter. It needs a catapult for takeoff. Super Hornet becomes very capable when it has support from AEW&C and other advanced assets. The Royal Australian Air Force currently operates 24 Super Hornets, while Kuwait has ordered 28 of the jets. F-18E was supposed to last 6,000 flight hours, but the portion of the wing holding the pylons last only 3,000 flight hours due to "metal fatigue". One specific reason for the problem was the larger than expected number of carrier landings carrying bombs. F/A-18E/F Block III has a 10,000-hour service life (and the F/A-18E/F Block II has just a 6,000-hour service life). The F/A-18XT appears to exclude the earlier demonstrator’s ‘stealthy’ enclosed weapons pod. However, unlike the F-15, it lacks a missile approach warning system. And although there aren't any infrared countermeasure chaffs, it does have advanced jamming EW-enabled towed decoys. As a result, the decoy can first try to generally jam a radar that is in search mode, then it can try to attack it directly to break its lock once it locks on. Then, if a missile locks on in flight, the decoy can instantly turn into a juicy target, or even targets, misdirecting the missile would home in on the fiber-optic decoy extensions and blow it off its wire instead of destroying the jet itself. During various operations, including the invasion of Iraq in 2003, the system worked incredibly well. The U.S. Navy’s Multi-Sensor Integration effort for the Super Hornet is being developed in 3 phases—capability similar to the F-22 and F-35. Highly upgraded version of the F/A-18 A-D Hornet, enlarged and given new engines and avionics. Commonality between the Hornet and Super Hornet is only about 25%. Strengths include its powerful AN/APG-79 AESA radar, which has drawn significant interest from India. Other advantages include carrier capability, a very wide range of integrated weapons, a design that is proven in service and in combat. Although it has been heavily marketed by Boeing, so far the Super Hornet has only seen a single buyer outside the U.S. Navy: The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF). Weaknesses of the Super Hornet platform include poorer aerodynamic performance than the Eurofighter or Rafale, due to inherent airframe limitations. Its "beefier" airframe meant for more of an attack role meant it didn't quite match the F-16 in power-to-weight ratios, and it was a more expensive fighter both to purchase and operate. It also made little sense to buy a carrier based aircraft when its buyer had no aircraft carriers. The F/A-18 did offer the advantage of two-engine safety. The Super Hornet's main advantages over the regular Hornet is its more highly advance AESA radar and increased payload. What the Super Hornet doesn't offer, however, is any major improvement in speed, range, or manoeuvrability. All F/A-18s are limited to a maximum of 7.5 positive g and 3 negative g for symmetrical maneuvers. In the classic F/A-18 fighter, past 50° angle of attack, there is a lot of very violent buffeting. The RAAF's purchase of the Super Hornet has been controversial. Intended to replace the FB-111 bomber, the Super Hornet is incapable of matching its predecessor's speed, range, or payload. There was also issue with the fact that the FB-111 wasn't at the end of its service life, but were simply too expensive to fly any more. With the retirement of the A-6 Intruder, and the cancellation of the A-12 Avenger II, the U.S. Navy needed a bigger attack plane. Hence, the larger Super Hornet. The design has been beefed up into the F/A-18A/B Hornet, then beefed up again to the F-18E/F Super Hornet. The original Hornet was intended to be "bomb truck". Hence, the "A" (for attack) in F/A-18. Along the way, the F-14's planned successor, a swing-wing version of the F-22 Raptor, was cancelled for budget reasons. It was decided that the US carrier fleet would use strictly F-18s for air-to-air combat. At present, the EA-18G is slated to be the only dedicated electronic warfare aircraft in the USA’s future force and is intended to replace ageing EA-6B Prowlers in the service’s fleet. Since the USA is currently the only western country with such aircraft, the US Navy’s EA-18G fleet would become the sole source of tactical jamming support for NATO and allied air forces as well. It will be based on Boeing’s 2-seat F/A-18F Super Hornet multi-role fighter, and has 90% commonality with its counterpart. Hornets have demonstrated a 180° missile shot with the AIM-132, firing the missile at a target in the firing aircraft’s 6 o’clock in the lock-on after launch mode. The so-called ‘Parthian Shot’ is a defensive boon. The Super Hornet currently costs between $75 million and $85 million and customised upgrades to engines, radar and other electronics could add additional $20 million per fighter. Electronic jamming capabilities of EA-18G Growler can weaken the operability of the Russian air shield in Syria, but not neutralize it completely. On many occasions, the Marine Corps didn't have enough F/A-18 kits on hand to adequately replace what was needed. A lot of times we would be hamstrung because there would only be one set of test equipment on the entire base. No matter what the situation, someone always has it worse. There were many times, where we would order parts, and they would take almost a week to get, or we would get multiple defective parts. There were also shortages of certain explosives that we needed to replace due to their upcoming expiration dates. We also had a few ECS (environmental control system) issues that required Boeing to send out technical representatives to assist us (and it took almost 2 weeks to solve the issue even with their help). China's AVIC Leihua Electronic Technology Research Institute (607 Institute) and China Aviation Optical-Electric Technology Co. teamed up in the early 1990s with South Africa's Grintek Avitronics to develop a family of radar warning receivers (RWR), missile approach warning systems (MAWS), chaff/flare countermeasures dispensers, passive and active missile seekers.trishul-trident.blogspot Electronic Warfare: It targets electronic emissions of all types. Radar technology sends an electromagnetic ping forward, bouncing it off objects before analyzing the return signal to determine a target's location, size, shape and speed etc. However, if "jammers" tech are able to interfered with the electromagnetic signal, in order to block, jam, thwart or “blind” in some way, the enemy radar systems are then unable to detect or target. A radar designer tries to make the signal weal so that the ESM cannot detect it. Himshakti is a lightweight version of Samyuktha ver. 2 electronic warfare system. Sujav is an integrated compact communication EW system. Sangraha is a joint EW programme of DRDO & Indian Navy. State-of-the-art technologies like Multiple Beam Phased array jammers are employed in the system for simultaneous handling of multiple threats. Russia has one major EW system per 10 km of frontage, usually situated approximately 7 km from the frontline. "Multiple Russian columns have been sent forward beyond the reach of their own air defence cover, and in others cases accompanying SAM batteries have been caught inactive in military traffic jams without making any apparent effort to provide situational awareness and defence against Ukrainian air assets. This has allowed the surviving Turkish-made Ukrainian Bayraktar TB-2 armed UAVs to operate with considerable effectiveness in some areas, inflicting significant losses on Russian vehicle columns." Russian EW achieved real-time interception and decryption of Motorola 256-bit encrypted communications. EW systems effectiveness depends on surprise. What it comes down to is that you don’t design and use high-tech weapons without realizing the enemy is going to recover some of them during combat operations. Things move faster in wartime, but the patterns are similar to what happens in peacetime. This surprise element is important when it comes to electronic gear in general, which is much more effective if the other side does not know much about how it works. New digital adaptive cognitive electronic warfare (EW) system technologies use machine-learning algorithms to protect aircrafts against communications jammers, by measuring a variety of data — the power level, frequency and bandwidth of radio signals; and adopt different never-before-seen frequencies, signal characteristics and waveform to avoid being jammed. Essentially, the military’s approach has been to study enemy systems for vulnerabilities, figure out ways of disrupting them and then building a “playbook” filled with different EW tactics. Cognitive Reactive Electronic-Warfare sensors (also offensive jammers) integrating with autonomous (without preprogramming) Artificial-Intelligence algorithms for quick, Adaptive Radar/communications (radio fingerprints) signal detecting, processing and disrupting (ARC) for real-time analytics; alongside Joint multi-domains like cyber & space-based navigation networks. The electronic equipments and data storages can get outdated every 6 months, which is a challenging and expensive process. The tools available to field US commanders are insufficient to enable them to develop and plan creative operations against changing enemy EW tactics. Airborne wideband high-power jammers are capable of disrupting HF/VHF/UHF bandwidth spectrum. A missile's terminal seeker going active automatically activates the targeted aircraft’s self-protection jammer. Atleast one Airborne Self Protection Jammer ASPJ pod is needed for two aircraft. The reason for 2 seater jet is due to man/machine interface of the avionics compared to one person's ability to handle such workload. India's High-band jammer pod developed by DARE currently include 3 systems: an integrated EW suite, the active array phased transmit-receive unit and an imported Israeli cooling system. It all begins with the Russian SAP-518 jammer pod that Moscow supplied with the Su-30MKI. After grappling for years with the pod, the Indian Air Force finally in 2015 realised it simply couldn't use them for two reasons. One, they were extremely heavy and when slung onto the fighter's wingtip hard-points, they reduce the fighter's flying envelope. The second issue is even worse. The IAF realised the SAP-518 pod has not been properly interfacing with the Indian on-board radar warning receiver (RWR), and the interfacing issues could not be addressed due to Russia’s unwillingness to share codes. DRDO's DARE have developed the Trap, Trumpet, Tempest, Tusker Pod based jammers which are in use with IAF Mig-27s. They are primarily noise jammers coupled with the Tarang Mk.2 RWR (earlier version Tranquil RWR developed by DARE for the Mig-23BN). In futuristic wars, Indian would need high-tech for better cognitive load capacity, quicker decision-making and for "sensor to shooter" network capabilities. Integrated Warfare Systems's Rear Admiral Doug Small said, “we’ve been very deliberate about keeping a low profile and not a huge internet presence (about U.S. crown jewel Project Overmatch's battlefield decision-superiority (reducing latency to support OPs) and streamline C2 enterprise network architectures capability in order to seamlessly network 'three existing sensor grids together to any manned or unmanned shooter'). Our competitors steal everything, and frankly, they’re not ashamed of it.” Adversaries "can exploit the information that’s put out there and then figure out ways to stymie that development because this is about accelerating war-fighting decisions by providing access to information in disparate places, running AI." The U.S. military is trying to protect its “secret sauce” from adversary eyes. This is the network side of war fighting, which you don’t want to reveal because the next war, the first parts of it will not be kinetic, they will be non-kinetic.
IEDs had been around for over a century. In Vietnam (1961-72) only 14% of combat deaths were from IEDs (especially roadside bombs), compared to 50-60% in Iraq and Afghanistan. The Taliban had another advantage in that since there was not a lot of old artillery ammo to use, so they had to use fertilizer to make bombs and all sorts of improvisations which created unfamiliar IED designs that Americans were used to. Back in 2011, it was obvious that Islamic terror groups had specialists who were able to adapt it to the needs of bomb makers. IAF has never released a single report of Boards of Enquiry into fatal crashes because OEMs were not responsible for any product liability of aircrafts licence-built by HAL. It will henceforth open a pandora’s box that will enable the widows of all those IAF pilots who have so far perished in such air crashes to sue the MoD & HAL for healthy financial compensation. This bitter truth had been kept a Top Secret by all successive govts of India since the 1950s. Su-30MKI is a 1980s design hence its requires 8 hours to change its engine, as opposed to contemporary fighters that require only 30 minutes. Su-30MKI's engine needs to be overhauled after around 800-900 hours of flying. By 2019, the IAF will have 272 Sukhoi-30MKIs, yet poor maintenance and inefficient spares management ensures that just 40% of these fighters are combat-ready at any given time. To carry 8 tons of ordnance, it must use both of its AL-31FP engines, and the transition from one to two – and the reverse – often causes engine failure. The Indian Air Force has reported three such malfunctions in a month, as well another shortcoming: The time needed for making the aircraft serviceable is too long. As a result, only half of the Indian fleet can be airborne at one time. We have 300 fighters and only 150 or 140 are capable of taking on the task. Rs 400 crore was invested in setting up after-sales-service units for both Su-30 and the helicopters. Today, availability has risen slightly to around 50% - 55% (currently, it has bee raised to 63%), but far lower than advanced western air forces, which generate 75% (some even 80%) availability rates. The Indian government is of opinion that a logistic hub will further improve the availability of Sukhoi-30MKIs. No air force in peacetime boasts of combat aircraft fleet availability rates of 85%. Ideally, the prescribed norm is at least 75%. Effectively, in terms of aircraft numbers, only 106 are combat-ready of the 193 Su-30MKIs that the IAF flies today would be available in war. Russian LP/HP turbine blades have material deficiencies. Russian-origin fighters recorded as many as 35 engine failures/engine-related problems between January 2013 and December 2014. Out of total 69 cases in the last three years, 33 cases are due to finding of chips in the oil, 11 due to vibration in the engine (caused by bearing problem) and 8 cases because of low pressure of lubricating oil. The failures were linked to faulty bearings that contaminated the plane’s oil supply. It seems that metal fatigue led to tiny pieces of metal shearing off the friction-reducing bearings, which then entered the oil system. This accounted for 33 of 69 engine failures. Another 11 failures were the result of engine vibrations, while eight more arose from a lack of pressure in that same lubricating oil. AL-31FN engines cannot endure larger load and pressure since it suffers from material and technological flaws which are causing engine cut-off leading to rising crashes. The Russia OEM has offered 9 modifications or technological improvements for implementation in the production of new aero engines and during overhaul of engines. 7 Su-30MKIs have crashed to date. Under existing arrangement, Russia takes nearly 12 months to complete orders placed by India depending on the time it requires to manufacture the said spare parts. Under a new arrangement planned the supply of spares will allow bypass of export licences, customs duties, bank guarantees and other procedural issues, reducing the time to just 4-6 weeks after receiving such request from Indian Air Force. In 2012, India and Russia agreed to a similar contract where turnaround time for parts of Su-30s needed to be repaired under warranty in Russia was shortened to average 30 days from 8 to 15 months. Su-30MKI having to wait one full minute before being cleared for takeoff due to the risk of ingestion of foreign objects (stone pebbles) which damage the engine’s compressor blades. Though bulk of the 272 Sukhois (240 inducted till now) for Rs 55,717 crore had been contracted from Russia have been made by HAL, they have been basically assembled here with imported knocked-down kits. HAL still cannot manufacture the Sukhois on its own. Indian HAL's state-of-the-art engine division facility in Koraput in Orissa, is the Aero engine capital of India. In last 50 years they have overhauled 7417 engines for R-25, R-29B, RD-33 and AL-31FP engines to power the MiG-21 series, MiG-27M, MiG-29 and Su-30 MKI aircraft. The Sukhoi (Su-30 MKI) engine facility is a marvel by itself with some of the gen-next technologies already being used, including a robotic welding system. A total of 23 engines have been made from the raw material phase now since 2011-12. The TBO (Time Between Overhaul) of a Sukhoi engine is 1000 hours, while the total lifespan of an engine is 2000 hours. It has already established a facility for production of single crystal blades for Sukhois, which can further support India’s missile and unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAV) programmes. The division estimated over Rs 1500 crore towards setting up a High Altitude Test Bed facility. Once the test bed goes live, India will be the 4th country in the world who can boast of such a state-of-the-art facility to test new engines. The facility will be able to simulate the actual condition of an engine when an aircraft will be in flight. The division has been on the threshold of successfully launching home-grown solutions while overhauling the RD-33 (Series-3) engines of MiG 29 fighters. “There was no ToT (transfer of technology) with Russians for 6 uncommon aggregators (accessories) of the RD-33 (Series-3) engines. The ToT was getting delayed as the Russians were demanding additional funds. The ToT would have come only by 2016, prompting us to initiate the indigenous programme,” says Arup Chatterjee, Officiating Chief of Project (Engines), while interacting with the media. He said the IAF had bought over 100 engines from the Russians in 2007. “With the engines started coming for overhaul, we developed technologies for three out of the six uncommon aggregators successfully. The remaining three are targeted to be developed within HAL by June 2015. This has given us self-confidence for meeting our indigenous missions,” Chatterjee added. Similarly, HAL also developed an overhaul technology for the KSA-2 accessory gearbox of RD-33 engines, which has been cleared by the certifying agencies now. HAL is currently producing the Su-30MKI at a flyaway cost of around Rs 269.77 crore ($62 million) per aircraft, which is almost “Rs 150 crore” ($22 million) higher per aircraft, than the Su-30 jet supplied by Russia Rs. 269.77 crore. The reason for the higher cost is that the warranty agreements states that the imports most of the raw materials, fabricated blocks, proprietary components & kits must be from Russian firms (OEMs) and the HAL assembled SU-30MKI have specifications that have enhanced capability than Russian SU-30. Through years of building the Su-30MKI, HAL Nashik has gradually mastered the expertise that makes it one of the world’s most feared fighters. India builds bare-bones fighters then equips them with Indian, Israeli and French sensors and communications gear. Due to the original equipment manufacturer (OEM) in Russia facing problems in sourcing the spare parts from countries like Belarus and Ukraine. India has started sourcing spares directly from western sources like Israel and France. Some of the sources in Russia themselves are Western. A lot of them are from Israel, France, etc. HAL officials say overhauling in India costs far less than what “original equipment manufacturers”, or OEMs, charge --- typically 35% to 40% of the cost of a brand-new fighter. Being the world’s only overhaul facility for the Su-30MKI, it could potentially get overhaul orders from countries like Vietnam, Malaysia, Algeria, etc, which fly variants of the Su-30. HAL’s new overhaul facility will give a new lease of life to its Su-30MKIs. Two new ordnance factories at Nalanda in Bihar and Korwa in Uttar Pradesh were being set up and a total investment of Rs 1,216 crore has already been made on the two projects. Not even Russia overhauls this fighter, a process that involves stripping it to its bare bones, checking every system and sub-system, replacing numerous components, and then reassembling the fighter anew. Its engine needs to be overhauled after around 800-900 hours of flying. HAL builds 87.7% of the engine’s components in India. 53% by cost of the Su-30MKI's giant AL-31FP engine has been indigenised, with the remaining 47% consisting of high-tech composites and special alloys - proprietary secrets that Russia will not part with. Even so, HAL builds 87.7% of the AL-31FP’s components in India, while the most critical ones are sourced from Russia. 51% by value (31,500 components out of 43,000 components) of the Su-30MKI is currently made in India in the contract signed in 2000. Only in 2008 did New Delhi and Moscow sign an overhaul contract. Until last year, aircraft parts and systems were going to Russia for overhaul. Over the years India has been able to get minor concessions for high-demand low-value spare parts being exempted from the contract. In 2010 Sukhoi revised the overhaul schedule to 1,500 flying hours or 14 years, whichever comes first. Over its total service life of 6,000 flying hours or 30-40 years, each fighter undergoes 3 overhauls. Further indigenisation is blocked since Russia is not willing to let go of this lucrative after-sale support. The Indo-Russian contract mandates that all raw material and high-burnout components that goes into the Su-30MKI - including 5,800 titanium blocks and forgings, aluminium and steel plates, etc (the cost of which rises every year due to inflation) - must be sourced from Russian original equipment manufacturer. The contract also stipulates that another 7,146 items like nuts, bolts, screws and rivets must be sourced from Russia. A titanium bar from Russia weighing 486 kg is machined down to a 15.9 kg tail component. The titanium shaved off is wasted. Similarly, a wing bracket, weighing barely 3 kg, comes out of a 27-kg titanium forging imported from Russia. Yet, India continues to import raw materials like 5,800 types of titanium blocks, forgings & extrusions because manufacturing them here is not economically viable in the tiny quantities needed for Su-30MKI production. Russia has expressed willingness to transfer technology of 332 components of the Sukhoi Su-30MKI fighter aircraft under the ‘Make-in-India’ program. These components, also called line replacement units (LRUs) refer to both critical and non-critical components and fall into 4 major heads such as Radio and Radar; Electrical & Electronics System; Mechanical System and Instrument System.
Pratt & Whitney PurePower PW1000G, a high-bypass geared turbofan engine currently selected as the exclusive engine for the Bombardier CSeries, Mitsubishi Regional Jet (MRJ), Embraer's second generation E-Jets equipped with the highly successful Honeywell’s Primus Epic. The new airplanes would also feature an entirely new wing design, full fly-by-wire flight controls, a new interior and various other new or modified systems. For Bombardier, the CSeries represents a particular challenge because not only is the aircraft in an entirely new class for Bombardier, as the CRJ1000 seats just 104 passengers in standard single class configuration whereas the CSeries seats 120-145, but it also makes heavy use of advanced materials (almost 70%) such as composites (46% of the aircraft) and aluminium-lithium alloys (Al-Li makes up around 24% of the aircraft). Developing turbine engine core & high-temperature compressor blades through incorporation of rare-earth materials are the most challenging parts of turbofan developmental process Of course, most of the “double-digit” improvement in operating cost would come from the pair of new engines, which would range in thrust from 15,000 pounds to 22,000 pounds. Boeing ran into troubles with its use of advanced materials on the perennially delayed 787 programme, which culminated with an aircraft that was still several tonnes overweight and 6% short on its fuel burn reduction promises at EIS In 1992, China agreed to buy 40 MD-90 commercial aircraft from McDonnell Douglas, a unit of the Boeing Company, if the US also allowed a set of 13 pieces of specialist machining tools (that shape and bend aircraft parts) to be sold to the China state-owned aerospace company CATIC. China diverted these tools to a facility known to manufacture military aircraft and cruise missile components, as well as civilian products. The large aircraft engine China's CJ-1000A is the first high bypass ratio turbofan engine for civilian use in China. Its core engine test is expected to be finished in 2014, and its experimental engine will meet the performance standards by 2016. This engine is scheduled to get a airworthiness certificate and realize product delivery in 2020. A jet engine functions by sucking in a large volume of air, compressing it rapidly in several stages, injecting aviation fuel into the air and then setting it alight to create a high-pressure, high-temperature gaseous mix. That is expelled backward through the exhaust, its reaction propelling the aircraft forward. HAL has never licence-produced more than 50% of any foreign-origin engine. HAL has, to date, licence-built only two types of engines: Orpheus 703 & R-11. Russians had apparently given India that TOT for single crystal technology with the sale of Sukhois. However, even today, India can't make it. A single crystal is a very complex metallurgical technology. High-temperature (1000 to 1100 degrees) nickel-based alloy blades for aero engines has to be made from a single crystal. The hard part is all high nickel components. India doesn't have any nickel mines, so India is dependent on importing nickel. And that's a problem. HLFT-42 max take-off weight of 16.5 tonnes.
China has been able to develop fighter jet engines. The WS-10, which powers the J-10, J-11, J-15, J-16 fighters, is having a successful production run. China sees gradual increase in annual production numbers starting from 320 engines in 2020 till 450 engines by 2026. However, the alloys for the blades wear-out much faster than western ones, so they are still dependent on Russian engines, even after spending billions on R&D. Since, engine development is by far the most complex and technically challenging aspect while developing a new combat aircraft, a lesson the United States learned during the development of the Grumman F-14 Tomcat and McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) F-15 Eagle during the 1970s. To remedy the problem, the Pentagon started development work on the F-119 and its General Electric YF120 competitor years before embarking on the development of the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor. The heavier F-16C with GE powered lighter F110 engines have 'big-mouth' intakes (and has good acceleration climb rates) compared to the older & lighter F-16 versions with older PW 229IPE+ mechanical engines that have 'small-mouth' intakes (which also had failure of the compressor sections causing the engines to explode). The F-100 deliver 79.178 kN of thrust & 129.443 kN with afterburner. Naval fighter have as much as 60% lower availability compared to the Airforce fighters. So it must have low-maintenance and high spare parts availability. They carry less payload, have less speed & range since it requires heavier landing gear and strengthened foldable wings. So they need most powerful engines to take-off from aircraft-carriers (without catapults) carrying full load. Space requirements, including the engine size, are kept in mind when designing a new fighter. Japan's indigenous XF-9 super-cruise-capable turbofan engines, developed by Ishikawa Heavy Industries, is capable of providing 150 kN thrust. “the FC-20/J10B is a possible candidate, though my personal assessment is that overall, it is not as advanced as the F-16C [Block 50/52].” J-10c (earlier Super J-10) 'Annihilator' (known in the West as 'Vigorous Dragon'), export version is F-10 (Pakistan version is called FC-20). The most important design change is the completely revised custom higher mass flow inlet design but lacks an edge alignment design. In 2019, China formed its first J10C squadron. The new inlet combines two design features observed in earlier US designs, a general arrangement similar to the F-8U3 Crusader III prototype, and a diverterless inlet bulge design similar to the F-16 demonstrator used to prove the inlet design for the X-35 JSF demonstrators. The inlet to fuselage join will significantly reduce the radar signature of the forward fuselage in the upper bands. Project 10 started several years later in January 1988, as a response to the Mikoyan MiG-29 and Sukhoi Su-27 then being introduced by the USSR. The aircraft's existence was known long before the announcement, although concrete details remained scarce due to secrecy. It has advanced radar absorbent material, composites, solid-state integrated electronics, integrated EW suite, diverterless supersonic inlet (DSI), infra-red search and track (IRST) sensor, modified vertical stabiliser and wings, ventral fins, housings fitted under the wings, improved FWS-10B engine (j-10b had the WS-10B engine), and a modified nose with an AESA radar. There have been conflicting reports about a possible relationship between the J-10 and the Israeli IAI Lavi fighter program. Copying old tech takes the same amount of time as developing new tech. It's much easier to take China's money, invest it in our own development, and let the Chinese do whatever they want. The strongest admission of Israeli involvement in the J-10's development by Israeli authorities appeared in a statement made by an official as American authorities investigated alleged Lavi technology sold to China. The sources also called the J-10 "more or less a version of the Lavi", but also a "a melting pot of foreign technology and acquired design methods" . The multi-role combat aircraft capable of all-weather J-10 finds it linage to the PAK acquired F-16 (Israeli LAVI) while the JF-17 finds its lineage to the Mig-21 (the original Super 7) with upgraded Mig-33 inputs to improve performance (by imported Russian engineers). In 2006, the Russian Siberian Aeronautical Research Institute (SibNIA) confirmed its participation in the J-10 program; SibNIA claimed to have only observed and instructed as "scientific guides", while its engineers also believed the J-10 was not only based on the Lavi, but also incorporated significant foreign technology and expertise. The J-10 bears some resemblance to the Dassault Rafale, the Saab JAS 39 Gripen, and the Eurofighter Typhoon, in addition to the Mikoyan-Gurevich Ye-8, the Chengdu J-9. Its helmet-mounted display system designed for J-10B pilots reacts faster and it is also very similar to the US-built F-16E/F Block 60 and French-built Rafale. Though it has never been certain precisely what specific technologies and systems Israel provided, it was reported that the Jian-10's radar and fire-control system is the Israeli-made ELM-2021 system, which can simultaneously track six air targets and lock on to the four most threatening targets for destruction. The technological knowledge accumulated during the Lavi’s development contributed to the achievement of Israel's first launch of a satellite into space in 1988. It resulted in a new level in avionics systems, and helped contribute to Israel's high-tech boom of the 1990s by releasing into the economy the technological talent of almost 1,500 engineers that had been concentrated on this one project. J-10C equipped with more advanced radar equipment, the radar has greater than the J-10 radar detection range and the ability to simultaneously track 12 targets. It also has, like the F-16E, installation of a similar "hump Falcon" two king-size fuel tanks. We often read on Western/Russian news sources about how they are shocked to see Russia is still willing to sell such an advanced aircraft to China even after China “cloned” Russian fighters, but those articles really do not seem to have a good grasp on reality. We know that China has two “stealth” fighter jet programs under development that will probably achieve IOC sometimes toward the end of this decade, so it doesn’t make sense for China to buy and then “copy” a large number of su-35s. Shenyang AC is actively developing and producing naval and fighter bomber versions of flankers in J-15 and J-16. Su-35 is mostly an air superiority aircraft, so it’s not going to help those projects. At the same time, China is also not exporting any of its flankers to other countries, so this export deal will not threaten Russia’s other export markets. In the 1990s and early 2000s China bought 76 Su-27SK/UBK fighters and 100 Su-30MKK/MK2 fighters from Russia. The family is subdivided into two parts: the “Chinese” Su-30MKK/MK2, which is produced in Komsomolsk-on-Amur and exported to Venezuela, Indonesia, Uganda, Vietnam, and of course China; and the “Indian” Su-30MKI, manufactured in Irkutsk and purchased by India, Algeria and Malaysia. Su-30MK variants India's MKI with integrated French & Israeli avionics, China's MKK, Malaysia's MKM with French and South African equipment and canards, stabilizers and fins from India under a $25-30 million value subcontract. India’s SU-30MKI Mk3 is also equipped with an on-board health-and-usage monitoring system (HUMS) from South Africa’s Aerospace Monitoring And Systems (Pty) Ltd (AMS), to provide hands-off monitoring of its various components. China secured a production agreement which licensed to build 200 Su-27SK aircraft using Russian-supplied kits. However, in 2004, Russian reported that the Chinese production of the J-11a was halted after around 104 were built. In 2002, Russian reported that China was looking into replacing Russian-made J-11/Su-27SK components with Chinese-made parts. Existence of J-11b was finally confirmed officially in mid-2007. At the MAKS 2009, Rosoboronexport's General Manager Anatoli Isaykin was quoted saying: "Russia is going to investigate the J-11B, as a Chinese copy of the Su-27 and Sukhoi Company is partaking in the process." In 2010, Rosoboronexport announced that it was in talks with the Chinese side, regarding the ongoing production of weapons that Russia considers as un-licensed. As the Soviet Union neared collapse in 1989, China seized the opportunity to secure the production line for the Sukhoi Su-27, an air superiority fighter developed to counter American jets like the T-14 Tomcat. The Soviets, keen to sell China a new MiG design instead, were left with little choice in the face of looming economic ruin. Beijing's breakthrough came in 1996, when it paid Russia $2.5 billion for a license to assemble another 200 Su-27s at the Shenyang Aircraft Company. The agreement stipulated that the aircraft—to be called the J-11—would include imported Russian avionics, radars and engines and couldn't be exported. It quickly built another 105 Su-27SK planes under Russian license. But after building 105, China abruptly cancelled the contract in 2004, claiming the aircraft no longer met its requirements, according to Russian officials and defence experts. Russia is concerned that China will gradually squeeze Russia out of its traditional arms markets. Three years later, Russia's fears were confirmed when China unveiled its own version of the fighter jet—the J-11B—on state television. China quickly set about producing their own Su-27s, and then improving upon the design to develop what would become the J-11. The J-11B looked almost identical to the Su-27, but China said it was 90% indigenous and included more advanced Chinese avionics and radars. The Su-27 gave China advanced avionics systems and fly-by-wire technology that China was also able to incorporate into later platforms. Only the engine was still Russian, China said. Many aviation experts believe AVIC is having problems developing an indigenous engine for the J-11B with the same thrust and durability as the original Russian ones. Copying old tech takes the same amount of time as developing new tech. It's much easier to take China's money, invest it in our own development, and let the Chinese do whatever they want. Russia might be more confident of protecting its IPRs on this go-around with China. Kashin said that when China copied the Su-27, information about the fighter was widely available in other parts of the world. This made it easier for China to acquire “Su-27 data and subsystems for testing, studying and using on the J-11B prototypes” from friendly countries, such as former Soviet republics. However, Kashin said, the Su-35 is just starting to make it into the Russian Air Force. “Since the production rate is not too high, these aircraft for the coming years will be concentrated just on a small number of bases, which can be strongly supervised by the security service,” he said. “And former [Soviet] republics have no technical data or samples of the aircraft, [so] they hopefully will not be able to get the data by clandestine means.” The J-11 is a continuation of the J-8 effort, but using more modern technology, and three decades of experience building warplanes. The J-11B reportedly features a slightly lighter airframe than the Russian original, made possible by greater use of composites, and a new Chinese-designed radar. It carries Chinese-designed air-to-air missiles such as the radar-guided Luoyang PL-12. Some sources indicate that J-11Bs may soon be equipped with a new active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar that is also likely to be used by the new Chengdu J-10B. Some recent images indicate that PLA Air Force J-11Bs may finally be receiving the Chinese-designed Shenyang WS-10A Taihang high-performance turbofan, the development and production of which has been a major objective for China's aerospace sector since the early 1990s. The J-11 is believed to now include better electronics and some other Chinese design modifications. China can manufacture most of the components of the J-11, the one major element it must import are the engines. China believes it will be free from dependence on Russia for military jet engines within the next 5-10 years. Currently, China imports two Russian engines, the $3.5 million AL-31 (for the Su-27/30, J-11, J-10) and the $2.5 million RD-93 (a version of the MiG-29s RD-33) for the JF-17 (a F-16 type aircraft developed in cooperation with Pakistan.) Pakistan is the first export customer of IIR-guided CM-400AKG subsonic cruise missiles , deploying it on CAC/PAC JF-17 Thunder (which is replacing their Mirage-VPA3). J-11BSH (Flying Shark) which is a direct copy of Su27UBK Flanker C+ In the 1970s, Shenyang Aircraft Factory proposed a light fighter (known as J-11/A) powered by the British Rolls-Royce Spey 512 engine, but otherwise similar to the MiG-19 then in service. The base J-11/A is a fourth-generation jet fighter which, like its Sukhoi brethren, is intended as a direct competitor to Western fourth generation fighters such as the F-15 Eagle and F-16 Fighting Falcon. The project was abandoned due to difficulty in obtaining the engines. In 1995, China secured a $2.5 billion production agreement which licensed China to build 200 Soviet-designed Sukhoi Su-27SK aircraft using Russian-supplied kits. Under the terms of the agreement, these aircraft would be outfitted with Russian avionics, radars and engines. However, only 95 of the original aircraft were delivered and the contract for the remaining 105 is still pending. It is believed that Russia cancelled the arrangement in 2006 after it discovered that China had reverse-engineered the technology and was developing an indigenous version, the J-11B. Russia is concerned that China will gradually squeeze Russia out of its traditional arms markets. But it's much easier to take China's money, invest it in our own development, and let the Chinese do whatever they want. Copying old tech takes the same amount of time as developing new tech. The modern J-11 Flanker B+ is a single-seat, twin-engine jet fighter based on the Soviet-designed Sukhoi Su-27SK. J-11BS is powered by domestic WS-10A engines. J-11C most notable upgrade is an upwardly canted radar dome, which carries J-16’s advanced Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar, as well as further use of composites and stealth coatings in the fuselage to reduce weight. The AESA radar allows to intercept enemy aircraft at longer ranges than either of its predecessors, and to attack multiple surface targets simultaneously. It also boasts of improved weapons hardpoints to carry more air-to-air missiles like the PL-10 and PL-15 than did earlier versions of the plane. It also has a new in-flight refueling arrangement that is similar to the Navy's J-15. J-16 is the newer strike variant of the J-11BS. In 2000, Russia sold China a number of advancements they’d made to their own Su-27 platform, and China’s subsequent effort to incorporate them alongside domestically developed technologies has since resulted in the the J-16—a modified and updated Su-27. To improve the detection capabilities of the Irbis-E PESA radar (also fitted in the Su-35), power consumption has been drastically increased while generators and hydraulic pumps have all been newly designed. The power consumption of the Irbis-E is three times more than that of the PESA passive electronically scanned array radar Russia exported to China. Chinese Navy's J-15 is a carrier-based fighter aircraft for the Chinese PLA Navy's aircraft carriers. When the Soviets refused to part with their Su-33 design secrets, China purchased an unfinished semi-stealth carrier-based H-MRCA Su-33 Sea Flanker-D prototype aircraft acquired from Ukraine, dubbed the T-10K-3, sometime in 2001 and is said to have been studied extensively, with development on the J-15 beginning immediately afterwards. Along with it was delivered related production-engineering data as well as the source-codes (crypto-keys) for the aircraft’s fly-by-wire flight-control systems and its digital databus. The T-10K-3 aircraft had made its maiden flight on February 17, 1990 in the former USSR. T-10K carrier based fighter prototype show the J-15 relation to T-10K. While the J-15 appears to be structurally based on the Su-33, mainly the airframe and engines. The fighter concept is similar to F-15E and its electronic and its radar are modern Chinese upgrades. The indigenous avionics are from the 4th gen multi-role J-11B fighter program (which is based on the Soviet-designed Sukhoi Su-27SK. J-15 range is reduced by its need to use a ski-jump for take-off. Only 24 J-15s that have been built. The first J-15 prototype is believed to have performed its maiden flight on August 31, 2009, powered by Russian-supplied AL-31 turbofan engines. Hu Siyuan of the National Defense University PLA China has said that the current weak point of the J-15 is its Russia-made AL-31F turbofan engine instead of the original WS-10H. J-15s to this day haven’t been flight-tested in fully weaponised modes since they are definitely under-powered. China has actively sought to purchase Su-33s from Russia on numerous occasions. An unsuccessful offer was made as late as March 2009 but negotiations collapsed in 2006 after it was discovered that China had developed a modified version of the Sukhoi Su-27SK designated the Shenyang J-11B, in violation of intellectual property agreements. The Indian Navy planned to acquire the Su-33 for the its aircraft carrier but in the end opted for the rival MiG-29K. India has learned, the hard way, that jet fighters capable of operating from carriers are a very specialized type of aircraft and not just a land-based jet modified a bit to withstand the rigors of landing and taking off from carriers. The MiG-29Ks not only suffered structural damage after every landing but the engines did as well. So far India has had 40 of these engines become totally unusable because of the damage. The MiG-29K can spend as much time as the Su-33 on station by using external fuel tanks, but this limits its ordnance capacity. The Su-33 can fly at speeds as low as 240 km/h (149 mph), in comparison the MiG-29K needs to maintain a minimum of 250 km/h (155 mph) for effective control. However, the MiG-29K carries more air-to-ground munitions than the Su-33. The Su-33 is more expensive and physically larger than the MiG-29K, limiting the numbers able to be deployed on an aircraft carrier. Russia's 25-ton Su-30M2 is also the least sophisticated, however, it replace the Bars radar with the much more powerful Irbis radar. It’s a derivative of the two-seat, multi-role Su-30MKK developed for China, albeit less sophisticated than the rival Su-30MK. It is powered by AL-41F-1S engines so it lacks the thrust-vectoring engines of the Irkut Su-30MK. It also lacks the canard foreplanes. The aircraft share much in common with the Su-27SM3, a KnAAPO-built single-seat fighter with improved avionics. Very similar to the Su-30M2 in appearance, is Russia's Su-30SM. Hallmarks of the Su-30MK that also appear in the Russian air force’s Su-30SM include two seats, canard foreplanes and thrust-vectoring engines, both allied with a sophisticated fly-by-wire flight control system. Unlike the KnAAPO jets, the Irkut-built Su-30MK and Su-30SM feature distinctive cropped tail fins. Compared to the export Su-30MKI, the “Russianized” Su-30SM replaces the Indian and Israeli avionics with Russian equivalents. Strangely however, most of the original French avionics—including the head-up display and navigation system—remain. One unique change compared to the export-optimized Su-30MK relates to the Su-30SM’s ejection seats. These are stronger in order to cope with the heavier weight of Russian pilots. In BVR air combat, there will never be a scenario involving only 1 Su-30MKI providing fire-control cues for other smaller multi-role strike fighters. At least 2 Su-30MKIs will be operating, with one of them keeping its PESA-MMR switched on & scanning the skies, while the information gleamed will be sent to the other Su-30MKI or other multi-role strike fighters via the ODL data-link. This is increasing the offensive power through "distributed lethality". Sukhoi Su-30MKI Phase-3 std. (making it so-called "Super" Sukhoi-30 MKI with thrust vectoring) NATO: Flanker-H Upgraded Su-30MKI will get a new weapons management computer and Israeli Targo Helmet Mounted Display System (HMDS). It will be able to use AIM-132 ASRAAM Block-6. The EW suite is a greater challenge in that the Su-30MKI's large radar cross-section makes a robust self-protection capacity mandatory. The aircraft's current EW suite is a variant of the Russian-produced KNIRTI SAP-518 wingtip-pod-mounted system, which can be augmented by the SAP-14 centreline stand-off jamming module. Distributed Aperture System (DAS) systems integration can only be done in Russia because Russia has the source codes for Su-30MKI's digital databus & systems interface software. Super Su-30MKI the top of the tailboom will house a MAWS sensor. The 'Super' variant (similar to Su-35S) of the Su-30MKI will feature Russian Phazotron Zhuk-AE AESA radars along with new onboard mission computers, electronic warfare systems (EWS) to launch the airborne version of the Brahmos and new Russian BVR Missiles rumored to be Novator K-100 missile also known as “AWCS Killer ” and also India’s own Astra BVR Missile. It'll be capable of carrying the Brahmos missile and feature a radar, and later the strategic subsonic Nirbhay cruise missile with a range of 1,000 km. The navigation and heads-up display systems are from Thales of France. The electronic warfare systems and targeting pods are Israeli, and the computers and ancillary avionics systems are Indian. The long-range sensor is Russian. India’s Sukhois MK currently use N011M passive array technology, which delivers less peak power than an AESA. Several of the IAF's Su 30MKI will include the replacement of the very capable but now ageing Bars PESA with a new Russian origin AESA. The N011M also has limitations in its back-end processing and requires more maintenance. The X-band AESA radar can track 30 aerial targets in the track-while-scan mode and engage six targets simultaneously in attack mode. The Super Su-30MKI airframe will also be flight-certified for flying terrain-hugging flight profiles (about 100 metres ASL), thanks to the terrain avoidance mode of operation of the AESA-MMR. The Super Su-30MKI upgrades technical challenges are related to the NO-36 multi-aperture AESA-MMR and its additional modes of operation that are now being developed at the IAF's request. The greatest advantage of such on-board distributed AESA arrays is that they will convert the Su-30MKI into a mini-AEW & C platform capable of undertaking tactical airborne battle management tasks in support of offensive air campaigns deep within hostile airspace, thereby doing away with the need for dedicated AEW & C platforms, which could then be more gainfully employed for strategic airspace surveillance-cum-management. Thus far, the IAF has projected a requirement for 50 Su-30MKIs to be configured as mini-AEW & C platforms. Upgrade of India's Su-30MKIs to "Super" Sukhois-30 is estimated to cost around $8bn. While the upgrades, costing Rs 109.2 billion, will include the strengthening and service life-extension of the Su-30MKI airframes; and installation of uprated turbofans, new glass cockpit avionics, mission management avionics, and integrated defensive aids suites. This will be followed by another batch of 42 new-build Su-30MKIs to be subjected to identical upgrades, with deliveries of these aircraft beginning in 2015 and ending in 2018. It is expected that in future, the Su-30MKMs of Malaysia and Su-30MKAs of Algeria too will be subjected to such ‘deep’ upgrade programmes. "Super Su-30MKI will have both terrain-avoidance and bad weather-avoidance modes of operation, as well as traffic collision avoidance mode" Experts question whether the Su-30 MKI can super-cruise. Su-30MKI has a speed of 2120 kmph or Mach 2. It has been argued that engines alone are not the only factor for super-cruise, as there has to be structural changes to enable that. In addition, a next generation BVR missile are also needed. AL-41F engine installed on the Su-35 & Russian SU-30 (to maintain commonality of engine) can generate just 19 kN of extra thrusts each when compared to AL-31FP installed on the Su-30MKI. The IAF wants to use the AL-31FP up to their full service-lives and then replace them with the AL-41F. The AL-31FP turbofans, rated at 126kN with after-burning, will offer 20% more power when uprated by NPO Saturn—its manufacturer--and will have a total technical service life of 4,500 to 6,000 hours, instead of the present 2,000 hours. The uprated engine will also employ a larger diameter fan, redesigned key hot-end components and cooling system technologies to permit reduced thrust lapse rates with altitude. The AL-31FP engine control system has been upgraded. Su-30MKI's engine needs to be overhauled after around 800-900 hours of flying. The integrated defensive aids suite, now being developed by a joint venture of DARE and Cassidian of Germany, will include the MILDS AN/AAR-60 missile approach warning system (MAWS).
The 34-ton single-seater multi-role Su-35S was planned as an affordable answer to european fighters ‘eurocanard’. It has speed of up to 2,500 kph and has a flying range of 3,400 kms and a combat radius close to 1,600 kms. The Su-35 can reach Mach 1.15 speed without afterburning. The fighter jet is armed with a 30mm gun (with 150 rounds) and has 12 hard-points for carrying bombs and missiles. Russia claims the Su-35 has a useful life of 6,000 flight hours and engines good for 4,000 hours. China and Egypt are the only two known customers of Su-35. Russia has 98 Su-35. The similarities between the present Su-30 MKI and the Su-35 are they carry 12 hard-points, besides 8,000 kgs of external ordnance, pulling a maximum of 9G. They have the same air-to-air and air-to-ground weapons package; have thrust vectoring engines and can house external jammers of all varieties and all kinds of pods. This is where the similarities end and the differences begin. Su-35 is not meant to be a direct rival to 6th gen fighters but the use of many thrusters along with fly-by-wire means the Su-35 is even more maneuverable than Su-30s. The Su-35 carries maximum internal fuel capacity of 11,500 kgs, while the Su-30 MKI has 9,640 kgs. In terms of operating range, there is a difference of a mere 600 kms: Su-35 with 3,600 kms and Su-30 MKI with 3,000 kms. The max altitude they could climb is 17.3 kms (Su-30 MKI) and 18 kms (Su-35); and max speed (Su-30 MKI) – 1.9 Mach and Su-35 – 2.25 Mach (this is a crucial difference in case of a dog fight on after-burners). Russia received its first Su-35s in 2013 and 4 were sent to Syria in early 2016 for some combat experience. These were successful, especially when delivering smart bombs. The purchase of 24 Russian Su-35 in 2015 in the amount of about $2 billion is the second largest transaction between the Russian and Chinese militaries. It received all of them one year late by 2019. Because of the frequent illegal copying of Russian technology, Chinese version of the Su-35 will be an export vesrion and not the same as the one used by the Russian Air Force. The acquisition of the Su-35 would allow the Chinese military to assess the progress and development of J-11. The Su-35 was in development for two decades before it was declared ready for production in 2005. The Su-35S, which spent two decades in development and was delayed by repeated problems with new technology (electronics and engines). Russia had promised world-class avionics, plus a very pilot-friendly cockpit. This delayed delivery of aircraft reliable enough for regular combat until early 2016. Russia has said that the engine problems have been solved. The Su-35’s supremacy as the most potent Flanker variant may be challenged by the Chinese J-11D is some areas, notably the latter’s AESA radar, but its is believed that the J-11D is not yet in full mature operational service. The downside of Su-35 Irbis-E radar is that it has to operate at extremely high power levels to achieve this performance and so is easily detectable and track-able at ranges beyond those at which it can track.
Infrared Search And Track systems were commonplace, although questionably effective, on American fighters during the 1960s and 1970s, and saw widespread use on Russian fighters from the late 1970s on. At its most basic level, an Infrared Search and Track system is an infrared energy detection device that is usually fitted in a spherical glass enclosure on the front of a fighter aircraft. The systems scans the airspace ahead of the jet for heat signatures caused by aircraft engines and/or skin friction caused by the aircraft flying through the air. Once the system detects a target, it usually has an ability to lock that target up, or a way to facilitate the crew in slaving their fighter's radar onto the point in space where that heat signature exists in order to attempt a radar lock. They are also impervious to electronic warfare and jamming, that's a very big deal. Its biggest advantage is that they are a passive sensor, as in they work without emitting any electromagnetic energy at all. While remaining electromagnetically silent, you can detect, track and engage him or her by detecting their physical infra-red signature without giving away your presence or location at all, even when it comes time to firing a shot at relatively long distances. Modern variations of IRSTs can search out to intermediate ranges, track multiple targets and even engage other aircraft using its telemetry data alone. Today, all western fighter aircraft feature advanced IRSTs. These include the SAAB Gripen with its Skyward-G IRST, the Eurofighter Typhoon with its capable PIRATE IRST, and Dassault's Rafale with its dual aperture Front Sector Optics system. IRSTs do have a couple weaknesses. First off, if it is installed in a podded system it will take up a stores station that could be used for more fuel and weapons. Second, their effectiveness can be degraded by atmospheric conditions to some degree. This does not mean an IRST will become ineffective on a stormy day, but those storms may reduce its scanning range. “The Fifty”: World's largest aerospace fabrication tools & dawn of the Military-Industrial ComplexThis is the story of the birth of the Jet Age and what the machines do is make the Jet Age possible. Every American military jet that has fired a gun or dropped a bomb in war was also built around Heavy Press parts. On a plane, a pound of weight saved is a pound of thrust gained—or a pound of lift, or a pound of cargo. A lighter plane also puts less stress on its chassis when it goes through maneuvers. Supersonic military jets are optimized for speed and strength. Subsonic passenger and cargo jets are optimized for fuel efficiency and load capacity. The reasons for German air superiority were several but a key one was their mastery of light-metal forging. While the Allies were still bolting together their planes out of steel plate, a slow, labor-intensive process ripe for error and unsuited to design optimization, the Germans aircrafts contained very large, high-quality, complex structural elements from magnesium and aluminum alloys, and it was determined that these elements must have been produced on large forging and extrusion presses. The principle of force multiplication that underlies the action of hydraulic presses was demonstrated in 1646 by Blaise Pascal of France. It was first incorporated into a useful industrial press by Joseph Bramah of England in 1796. Not surprisingly, after Germany surrendered, Allied technical teams went into the German factories and found that the Germans had produced and learned how to operate die forging presses up to 30,000 tons capacity, and found that one 30,000, and two 15,000 ton presses were still usable. As part of the post war settlement, the Soviets got the largest 30,000 ton press and the U.S. got the next two largest 16,500 ton press units, which were channeled into the USAF’s Heavy Press Program. The Soviet acquisition of Germany’s biggest forges made it all but inevitable that the U.S. would build its own heavy presses. 17 presses were originally planned with an expected cost of $389 million, but the project was scaled back to 10 magnificent huge forges (powered by huge high-pressure hydro-pneumatic systems using water with soluble oil as the working fluid), built in 1950s by the U.S. government. The two Press Builders were Loewy Hydropress and Mesta Machine of Pittsburgh. Since there wasn’t a consumer market for anything produced by the heavy presses constructed by the program, the government would own the facilities and rent them out to the contractors. Thus, Air Force Plant 47 was authorized to be built in 1952, located in Cleveland, Ohio next to the ALCOA plant, to house the 50,000 ton press that Mesta was making. The “Fifty” was shut down in the summer of 2008 when engineers found stress cracks in the machine’s base. Parts for the F-35 will be made on the big press, as well many other fighter and commercial aircraft. Commercially, the Loewy press made the 747 main wing beams and for the Air Force all the B2 Stealth Bomber forgings at Wyman-Gordon in North Grafton, Massachusetts. The 50,000-ton Mesta press was one of the first built under this program between 1952 and 1955. It has been dominant in commercial aircraft development as well as advanced military aircraft and aerospace programs (e.g huge titanium components became the bulkheads that anchor the engines, fuselage, and wings of F-15s). The Aluminum Company of America is the operating contractor. They still hold the records for size in North America and both the 50,000-ton presses are listed as National Historic Engineering Landmarks, though they have since been surpassed by presses in Japan, France, Russia and China. The only companies today capable of producing Heavy Press-size equipment are in the backwaters known as Germany and Japan, with companies in Russia, Korea, and China rapidly catching up and the UK actively rebuilding its top firm, Sheffield Forgemasters, through cheap government loans. Four Japanese companies joined forces to build a new 50,000-ton press for the aerospace and power industries. This Program was in many ways the test case for the proper division between private and public interest, and it was decided in favor of what amounts to a mutual aid society between American industry, the American military, and Congress. The idea that it was in the public’s interest to pay for the machines but cede their control to industry was a controversial one, and many leaders in Congress strongly resisted it as a dangerous blurring of private and civic concerns. Cold War policy also encouraged massive defense spending, but (as ever) a secondary war was being waged by the military branches for funding, and heavy forging wasn’t of much use to the Army or Navy. The primary advocate for these forging presses and extrusion presses were Air Force Lieutenant General K. B. Wolfe & Alexander Zeitlin. PTC with Zeitlin and Zandel had patented a press frame concept for an enormous 500,000-ton forging press and also patented press designs incorporating composite materials. Though they were built nearly 60 years ago, the 10 World's largest machines of the "The Heavy Press Program of the U.S.A.F." — 4 forging presses, the waffle irons, and 6 extrusion presses, basically giant caulking guns except the “caulk” is solid metal — are still among the most powerful ever made. Even more impressively, at least 8 of the 10 are still in use; however, composites have possibly eliminated the need for such larger "Super Presses". Curtiss-Wright’s extruder ultimately was bought by Precision Castparts and moved to Houston, and Kaiser’s pair was taken over by ALCOA. |
Its 280 km range anti-ship variant, incorporating an active radar seeker with 40 km range for anti-ship strike, was export designated as the C-602, also known as YJ-62 or YJ-12B long-range subsonic shore-based anti-ship cruise missile (China's C-602 export version: Pakistan calls it "Harba" missile). The development program itself appears to date back as far back as 1989, under the designation XY-41. In various US sources of the 1990s and early 2000s, the missile was also referred to as Harpoon-like The Land Attack Silkworm. |
The Italian Leonardo & Finmeccanica (originally Galileo Avionica & formerly FIAR) Grifo-7 mono-pulse multi-functional fire control radar (is compatible with IR guided missiles), is license assembled by Pakistan. The C-602 missile is equipped a “mono-pulse frequency agile (active) radar seeker” developed from Grifo-7 mono-pulse multi-functional radar by China's CETC. The missile has incorporated the capability to switch to more threatening ones should such threat arise but it is not clear whether this capability in built-in.
Anti-ship missiles are made of various sensitive materials, so local temperature, humidity, salinity may cause problems. Chinese YJ-18 replaces obsolete C602 anti-ship missiles in Iran and Pakistan as Barak 8 is able to counter it. There is some confusion if Pakistan "Zarb" anti-ship missile is China's Tomahawk-like C-802 or the obsolete C-602 cruise missile.
If the goal of India’s missile defence system has been to bait Pakistan into an economically ruinous arms race – as some suggest the U.S. did with the Soviet Union in the 1980s – then it appears to be succeeding.
It has been speculated that Babur-2 is based on the BGM-109 Tomahawk cruise missile, after six Tomahawks crash-landed on Pakistani territory in 1998 during US air-strikes on targets in Afghanistan, and its design seems to show this influence. The efforts to reverse engineer BGM-109 Tomahawk proved unsuccessful. Six Tomahawks crash-landed on Pakistani territory in 2001 during US airstrikes on targets in Afghanistan, and its design seems to show this influence. Tomahawk was not terribly high-tech, and easy for the Pakistanis to copy. GPS made it easier to replace the earlier (and only high-tech aspect of the missile) terrain following guidance system. By 2001 the Kh-55SM production engineering data was bought from Ukraine (redesigned RD95-300 turbofan that bore a strong resemblance to the Russian 36MT engine). | Both Babur (also Harbah) is based on CJ-10 or DF-10A cruise missile. Babur or Hatf VI has two main variants: Babur-1A is 500KM & Babur-1B is 700KM. Pakistan has two such Babur-1A Battalions. It would be used to attack non-mobile land targets and ships. China had bought the Korshun cruise missile for mass-production in 1995 and renamed it CJ-10 Long Sword land-attack cruise missiles (LACM). In 2001, Chinese Aerospace Science & Technology Corp succeeded in smuggling out of Ukraine all relevant production engineering data packages of a Korshun cruise missile. CJ-10 or DF-10A power-plant is derived from the Ukraine version of the Soviet Kh-55SM Raduga missile (Ukrainian redesigned RD95-300 turbofan that bore a strong resemblance to the 36MT engine developed by Russia's NPO Saturn) called Korshun low-altitude land-attack cruise missile. China's coastal-based variant of the CJ-10 or DF-10A (Long Sword missile family) seeker is in Pakistan's Babur aka HQ-6D / LY-60N / PL-12 SAM is a short-range, turbojet powered, single warhead, cruise missile. The known launch vehicles have all been mobile, land-based, vertical launch platforms. It has the same 'AMR-1' seeker from the PL-12 and (its derivatives) SD-10A BVR air-to-air missiles & DK-10 Sky Dragon 50 SAM system. These active radar missile, and the earlier semi-active radar homing (was supposed to be licence-built) PL-11, all seemed to have a common design heritage with the Italian Aspide missile, 100 missiles were supplied to China during the late 1980s. There is also speculation that the Hatf VI's engine was provided by China in violation of the MTCR. By 2001 the Kh-55SM production engineering data was bought by China from Ukraine for $40 million (redesigned RD95-300 turbofan that bore a strong resemblance to the Russian 36MT engine). The Kh-55 missile was developed by the Raduga Design Bureau (NPO) at Dubna from the early 1970s. The 500 km-range missile became the Babur-1A. It's said that the missile is also fitted with cruise missile technology of Terrain Contour Matching and Digital Scene Matching and Area Co-relation. However, maybe Babur does not have terrain-hugging flight profiles but has low flying capability (to cruise at 500 to 10,000 metres above the surface) to avoid detection by the enemy radars, since its GPS and GLONASS eliminates the need for a country to rely on TERCOM navigation. And now checked for synchronisation with National Command Authority’s fully automated Strategic Command and Control Support System, which means it has added capability of real-time remote monitoring of the missile flight path. The low-flying ability helps the missile avoid enemy radar detection by utilizing "terrain masking", giving Babur the capability to penetrate enemy air defence systems undetected and survive until reaching the target. |
Ultimately, Pakistan’s nuclear-capable cruise missiles have the potential to complicate India’s decision-making calculus and even constrain Indian strategic behaviour. First, Pakistan’s cruise missiles will pose a serious challenge to India’s fledgling missile defence system. Cruise missiles are virtually undetectable and highly survivable, even in the face of modern missile defences. The first few weeks of the 2003 Iraq War demonstrated that sophisticated missile defences could shoot down ballistic missiles with relative ease, but faced a significantly more difficult task in preventing a cruise missile strike.
This is not to say that cruise missiles can never be shot down or that they are perfectly invulnerable. Several U.S. cruise missiles veered wildly off-course – in a guidance-system failure called “clobbering” – during its missile campaign against Afghanistan in 1998 and during the Iraq War. Additionally, cruise missile defence, unlike ballistic missile defence, is relatively new and technologies developed to deal with this threat are likely to emerge in the coming years. Nevertheless, these shortcomings are superseded by the tremendous advantages cruise missiles have over ballistic missiles in defeating existing missile defences.
All Pakistani missiles are named Hatf (meaning “doom” in Arabic, but often mistranslated as “vengeance”). The missiles are numbered from I to IX, with each missile type also having a specific name.
China's ground launched CJ-10 (or DH-10) Long Sword land attack cruise missiles (LACM) is a strategic cruise missile modelled on the United States BGM-109G GLCM and Soviet (originally KH-55 Relief) KH-55SM Granat also known as RKV-500A and RKV-500B (NATO name: AS-15A & AS-15B Kent) air-launched strategic cruise missile, the latter both scrapped under treaty obligations. The CJ-10 was initially identified as the DH-10. The YJ-100 is a subsonic anti-ship missile version of the CJ-10 with a range of 800 km.
China had bought the Korshun cruise missile for mass-production in 1995 and renamed it CJ-10 Long Sword land-attack cruise missiles (LACM). In 2001, Chinese Aerospace Science & Technology Corp succeeded in smuggling out of Ukraine all relevant production engineering data packages of a Korshun cruise missile. CJ-10 or DF-10A power-plant is derived from the Ukraine version of the Soviet Kh-55SM Raduga missile (Ukrainian redesigned RD95-300 turbofan that bore a strong resemblance to the 36MT engine developed by Russia's NPO Saturn) called Korshun low-altitude land-attack cruise missile.
Shortly after ejection from the canister, the DH-10's two retractable wings, four tail-fins and belly mounted engine air intake will all unfold as it flies as far as 2,500km away. Reportedly able to hit a garage-door-sized target, in addition to carrying a 1100-pound high explosive warhead toward a target with accuracy, the DH-10's payload can either be a high explosive warhead or submunitions for attacking fighters on runways and tank columns, nuclear warheads and fuel air explosives. Notably, DH-10s use several guidance modes, including satellite navigation, inertial navigation, and terrain following, making it hard to jam or deceive.
The flexibility of the DH-10 is its greatest strength. The Type 052D guided missile destroyer and Type 093A nuclear attack submarines can carry DH-10s in their vertical launch systems; sea-launched DH-10s can cover over 90 percent of all global land mass. The next generation of this family will be the YJ-100, a proposed DH-10 anti-ship variant that will have an onboard radar and 800 km range, potentially China's answer to the U.S. Long Range Anti-ship Missile. More broadly, future Chinese cruise missiles are likely to branch off into two families, one optimized for stealth, and the other focused on hypersonic flight.
The Kh-55 family of cruise missiles owes its origins to a series of internal studies at the Raduga OKB during the early 1970s. Raduga’s early work on these weapons was opposed by many Russian experts, who were deeply sceptical of the viability of such a complex new weapon, but this changed as public knowledge of the US Air Launched Cruise Missile program became better known in the Soviet Union.
The cancellation of the ambitious Kh-90 ramjet missile due to INF treaty in 1987 led to a renewed emphasis on improving the accuracy of the Kh-55. The X-55SM modification provided for increased range with the installation of expendable conformal fuel tanks which are mounted on both sides of the fuselage, giving it an estimated range of 3,000 kilometres (1,860 miles).
The Kh-55 family of weapons most closely resemble the early US BGM-109 Tomahawk in concept and size. The most visible difference between the Tomahawk and Kh-55 families of missiles is the engine installation.
Unlike contemporary US weapons, which use complex anti-tamper techniques in the software and integrated hardware, the Kh-55 predates this model by a generation. As such, the electronics in the guidance system can be readily reversed engineered using commercial components, and the structure and engine use commodity materials technologies. The only components in the design which could present difficulties for a new player are the engine turbine and combustors. It is powered by a single 400 kgf Ukrainian-made, Motor Sich JSC R95-300 turbofan engine, with pop-out wings for cruising efficiency. It can be launched from both high and low altitudes, and flies at subsonic speeds at low levels. Current-production versions are equipped with the increased power of 450 kgf Russian-made NPO Saturn TRDD-50A engine.
A 1995 Russian document suggested a complete production facility had been transferred to Shanghai, for the development of a nuclear-armed cruise missile. At the end of 1999 there were 575 cruise missiles of air basing X-55 and X-55SM delivered from Ukraine to Russia by rail transport on account of liquidation of debt for the deliveries of gas. China illegally acquired six Kh-55SM missiles in April 2000, samples from Ukraine, who then permit the development of a cloned variant. To date, indigenous Chinese cruise missiles have not matched the range performance of the Kh-55 series.
DH-10 / CJ-10 was developed from the X-600 subsonic cruise missile, the new design incorporates elements of the Soviet Kh-55 cruise missiles. China may also have acquired several American Tomahawk missiles from Pakistan and Afghanistan, after the missiles were fired in a failed attack on the Al Qaeda in 1998. The knowledge from these missiles may have been used in the CJ-10/YJ-62 project.
Besides the land attack variant, a possible shore to ship variant has also been rumoured to be in Chinese service. Many Taiwan and Hong Kong media sources believe that the weapon has been developed to counter the US Navy's Carrier battle groups, with the aim of a land-based carrier destruction capability.
DPRK acquiring cruise missile technology from Iran, who got six Kh-55SM in June 2001 from Ukraine. Given the well documented earlier collaboration between Iran and the DPRK on IRBM development and production, an analogous play using reverse engineered Kh-55s is entirely credible. Iran's Soumar air-launched strategic cruise missile.
China had bought the Korshun cruise missile for mass-production in 1995 and renamed it CJ-10 Long Sword land-attack cruise missiles (LACM). In 2001, Chinese Aerospace Science & Technology Corp succeeded in smuggling out of Ukraine all relevant production engineering data packages of a Korshun cruise missile. CJ-10 or DF-10A power-plant is derived from the Ukraine version of the Soviet Kh-55SM Raduga missile (Ukrainian redesigned RD95-300 turbofan that bore a strong resemblance to the 36MT engine developed by Russia's NPO Saturn) called Korshun low-altitude land-attack cruise missile.
Shortly after ejection from the canister, the DH-10's two retractable wings, four tail-fins and belly mounted engine air intake will all unfold as it flies as far as 2,500km away. Reportedly able to hit a garage-door-sized target, in addition to carrying a 1100-pound high explosive warhead toward a target with accuracy, the DH-10's payload can either be a high explosive warhead or submunitions for attacking fighters on runways and tank columns, nuclear warheads and fuel air explosives. Notably, DH-10s use several guidance modes, including satellite navigation, inertial navigation, and terrain following, making it hard to jam or deceive.
The flexibility of the DH-10 is its greatest strength. The Type 052D guided missile destroyer and Type 093A nuclear attack submarines can carry DH-10s in their vertical launch systems; sea-launched DH-10s can cover over 90 percent of all global land mass. The next generation of this family will be the YJ-100, a proposed DH-10 anti-ship variant that will have an onboard radar and 800 km range, potentially China's answer to the U.S. Long Range Anti-ship Missile. More broadly, future Chinese cruise missiles are likely to branch off into two families, one optimized for stealth, and the other focused on hypersonic flight.
The Kh-55 family of cruise missiles owes its origins to a series of internal studies at the Raduga OKB during the early 1970s. Raduga’s early work on these weapons was opposed by many Russian experts, who were deeply sceptical of the viability of such a complex new weapon, but this changed as public knowledge of the US Air Launched Cruise Missile program became better known in the Soviet Union.
The cancellation of the ambitious Kh-90 ramjet missile due to INF treaty in 1987 led to a renewed emphasis on improving the accuracy of the Kh-55. The X-55SM modification provided for increased range with the installation of expendable conformal fuel tanks which are mounted on both sides of the fuselage, giving it an estimated range of 3,000 kilometres (1,860 miles).
The Kh-55 family of weapons most closely resemble the early US BGM-109 Tomahawk in concept and size. The most visible difference between the Tomahawk and Kh-55 families of missiles is the engine installation.
Unlike contemporary US weapons, which use complex anti-tamper techniques in the software and integrated hardware, the Kh-55 predates this model by a generation. As such, the electronics in the guidance system can be readily reversed engineered using commercial components, and the structure and engine use commodity materials technologies. The only components in the design which could present difficulties for a new player are the engine turbine and combustors. It is powered by a single 400 kgf Ukrainian-made, Motor Sich JSC R95-300 turbofan engine, with pop-out wings for cruising efficiency. It can be launched from both high and low altitudes, and flies at subsonic speeds at low levels. Current-production versions are equipped with the increased power of 450 kgf Russian-made NPO Saturn TRDD-50A engine.
A 1995 Russian document suggested a complete production facility had been transferred to Shanghai, for the development of a nuclear-armed cruise missile. At the end of 1999 there were 575 cruise missiles of air basing X-55 and X-55SM delivered from Ukraine to Russia by rail transport on account of liquidation of debt for the deliveries of gas. China illegally acquired six Kh-55SM missiles in April 2000, samples from Ukraine, who then permit the development of a cloned variant. To date, indigenous Chinese cruise missiles have not matched the range performance of the Kh-55 series.
DH-10 / CJ-10 was developed from the X-600 subsonic cruise missile, the new design incorporates elements of the Soviet Kh-55 cruise missiles. China may also have acquired several American Tomahawk missiles from Pakistan and Afghanistan, after the missiles were fired in a failed attack on the Al Qaeda in 1998. The knowledge from these missiles may have been used in the CJ-10/YJ-62 project.
Besides the land attack variant, a possible shore to ship variant has also been rumoured to be in Chinese service. Many Taiwan and Hong Kong media sources believe that the weapon has been developed to counter the US Navy's Carrier battle groups, with the aim of a land-based carrier destruction capability.
DPRK acquiring cruise missile technology from Iran, who got six Kh-55SM in June 2001 from Ukraine. Given the well documented earlier collaboration between Iran and the DPRK on IRBM development and production, an analogous play using reverse engineered Kh-55s is entirely credible. Iran's Soumar air-launched strategic cruise missile.
The Kh-65 missile is a tactical modification of the strategic Kh-55. The reduced range is a product of compliance with the SALT-2 treaty. The Kh-65SE is a derivative of Kh-65 cruise missile intended as a long range, aircraft-launched, sea-skimming anti-ship missile. It features an active radar seeker added to the Kh-55 navigation system for the terminal phase of the flight engagement.
The Kh-SD may be an improved version of the Kh-65 precision-attack cruise missile, which was promoted by the Russians in the early 1990s, along with a "Kh-65E" antiship variant. The Kh-SD is reportedly a smaller version of the Kh-101 but may have an active radar seeker. It is described as the short range tactical version of the Kh-101.
36MT small-sized turbofan engine is designed for small, low-flying means, especially for anti-ship cruise missile. The engine was developed by NPO Saturn, using the experience of the previous project "Izdělije 36". The engine is similar to US F107-WR-400, and has about 20 to 30% higher thrust. Engine development began after the collapse of the USSR, where the manufacturer has hitherto used R95 engine remained outside Russia, with Ukraine.
Structurally, the motor consists of a single-stage blower with wide blades, compressor, annular combustor, single-stage, single-stage low-pressure and high-pressure turbine, part of the engine there is a power generator 4 kW. The motor is controlled by an electro-hydraulic system. 36MT engine with low fuel consumption, resistance sucked dirt and adverse weather conditions, and the ability to self-destruction surge.
The Kh-SD may be an improved version of the Kh-65 precision-attack cruise missile, which was promoted by the Russians in the early 1990s, along with a "Kh-65E" antiship variant. The Kh-SD is reportedly a smaller version of the Kh-101 but may have an active radar seeker. It is described as the short range tactical version of the Kh-101.
36MT small-sized turbofan engine is designed for small, low-flying means, especially for anti-ship cruise missile. The engine was developed by NPO Saturn, using the experience of the previous project "Izdělije 36". The engine is similar to US F107-WR-400, and has about 20 to 30% higher thrust. Engine development began after the collapse of the USSR, where the manufacturer has hitherto used R95 engine remained outside Russia, with Ukraine.
Structurally, the motor consists of a single-stage blower with wide blades, compressor, annular combustor, single-stage, single-stage low-pressure and high-pressure turbine, part of the engine there is a power generator 4 kW. The motor is controlled by an electro-hydraulic system. 36MT engine with low fuel consumption, resistance sucked dirt and adverse weather conditions, and the ability to self-destruction surge.
140 km range SCALP EG Storm Shadow cruise missiles Arme Propulsee A CHarges Ejectables (APACHE AP) project by MBDA. US is refusing to allow the export a component that is needed for the CALP Storm Shadow cruise missiles. Egypt refuses to buy more Rafales unless the deal includes SCALP missiles.
Kongsberg’s stealthy new Naval Strike Missile designed to be carried and launched internally from the F-35 Lightning II fighter’s internal bays (1 missile per bay), or carried on external hardpoints by any aircraft type to integrate the weapon. Its aim to be a generation beyond the USA’s GM-84 Harpoon.
NSM’s Joint Strike Missile counterpart may have even more potential, as a longer-range air-launched naval and land strike complement to Kongsberg’s popular Penguin short-range anti-ship missile.
An imaging infrared seeker with automatic target recognizer (ATR) are used for final approach targeting. Note the lack of radar use by the missile itself, which is normally standard procedure for anti-ship weapons. That makes the NSM completely passive, offering no warning from shipboard ESM systems that detect radar emissions, even as its stealthy shape offers little warning from its target’s active radar sweeps. This is a missile optimized at all levels for stealth, making supersonic speed less necessary.
Once NSM locks on, it strikes ships or land targets with a titanium warhead and programmable fuze. A 130 nautical mile operational range gives the missile reach, GPS/INS guidance flies them toward the target, and an in-flight data link makes the missile reprogrammable in flight, if its target disappears or a higher priority threat appears.
NSM’s Joint Strike Missile counterpart may have even more potential, as a longer-range air-launched naval and land strike complement to Kongsberg’s popular Penguin short-range anti-ship missile.
An imaging infrared seeker with automatic target recognizer (ATR) are used for final approach targeting. Note the lack of radar use by the missile itself, which is normally standard procedure for anti-ship weapons. That makes the NSM completely passive, offering no warning from shipboard ESM systems that detect radar emissions, even as its stealthy shape offers little warning from its target’s active radar sweeps. This is a missile optimized at all levels for stealth, making supersonic speed less necessary.
Once NSM locks on, it strikes ships or land targets with a titanium warhead and programmable fuze. A 130 nautical mile operational range gives the missile reach, GPS/INS guidance flies them toward the target, and an in-flight data link makes the missile reprogrammable in flight, if its target disappears or a higher priority threat appears.
U.S.'s AGM-84 Harpoon Block-II ASCM & SLAM
The Harpoon missile provides the Navy and the Air Force with a common missile for air, ship, and submarine launches. The Harpoon missile was designed to sink warships in an open-ocean environment.
The AGM-84D Harpoon is an all-weather, over-the-horizon, anti-ship missile system produced by Boeing [formerly McDonnell Douglas]. The Harpoon's active radar guidance, warhead design, and low-level, sea-skimming cruise trajectory assure high survivability and effectiveness. The missile is capable of being launched from surface ships, submarines, or (without the booster) from aircraft. The AGM-84D was first introduced in 1977. The AGM-84E Harpoon is an infrared Stand-Off Land Attack Missile (SLAM) used for long range precision strikes.
Once targeting information is obtained and sent to the Harpoon missile, it is fired. Once fired, the missile flys to the target location, turns on its seeker, locates the target and strikes it without further action from the firing platform. This allows the firing platform to engage other threats instead of concentrating on one at a time. The weapon system uses mid-course guidance with a radar seeker to attack surface ships. Its low-level, sea-skimming cruise trajectory, active radar guidance and warhead design assure high survivability and effectiveness.
The 546 kg/1,200 pound Harpoon has a 222 kg/487 pound warhead and a range of 220 km. It approaches the target low, at about 860 km/hour. GPS gets the missile to the general vicinity of the target, then radar takes over to identify and hit the target.
Pakistan has 30 AGM-84L (air-launched) Block II Harpoon missiles.
The Harpoon missile provides the Navy and the Air Force with a common missile for air, ship, and submarine launches. The Harpoon missile was designed to sink warships in an open-ocean environment.
The AGM-84D Harpoon is an all-weather, over-the-horizon, anti-ship missile system produced by Boeing [formerly McDonnell Douglas]. The Harpoon's active radar guidance, warhead design, and low-level, sea-skimming cruise trajectory assure high survivability and effectiveness. The missile is capable of being launched from surface ships, submarines, or (without the booster) from aircraft. The AGM-84D was first introduced in 1977. The AGM-84E Harpoon is an infrared Stand-Off Land Attack Missile (SLAM) used for long range precision strikes.
Once targeting information is obtained and sent to the Harpoon missile, it is fired. Once fired, the missile flys to the target location, turns on its seeker, locates the target and strikes it without further action from the firing platform. This allows the firing platform to engage other threats instead of concentrating on one at a time. The weapon system uses mid-course guidance with a radar seeker to attack surface ships. Its low-level, sea-skimming cruise trajectory, active radar guidance and warhead design assure high survivability and effectiveness.
The 546 kg/1,200 pound Harpoon has a 222 kg/487 pound warhead and a range of 220 km. It approaches the target low, at about 860 km/hour. GPS gets the missile to the general vicinity of the target, then radar takes over to identify and hit the target.
Pakistan has 30 AGM-84L (air-launched) Block II Harpoon missiles.
Atmaca anti-ship cruise missile developed by Roketsan for Turkish Navy to replace Harpoon ASCM & SLAM. It has Microturbo TRI 40 mini-turbojet engine
India, with Russian collaboration, has developing the BrahMos supersonic cruise missile. Although there is no evidence that Russia has aided India in an extended-range version of the BrahMos cruise missile, Indian officials have publicly spoken of a BrahMos follow-on capable, within a decade, of travelling 1,000 kilometers at hypersonic speeds. India has at least two other land-attack cruise missile programs underway, including one, called Nirbhay, similar to the U.S. Tomahawk with a range of 1,000 kilometres and another shorter-range one co-developed with Israel’s help.
In the Middle East, Israel was once the sole country possessing land-attack cruise missiles, but now Iran is pursuing cruise missile programs for land and sea attack, including the reported conversion of 300 Chinese HY-2 anti-ship cruise missiles into land-attack systems. Iran’s surreptitious acquisition via arms dealers in Ukraine of at least six Russian Kh-55 nuclear-capable, long-range (about 3,000 kilometres) cruise missiles.
China has a long history of local cruise missile development, particularly with regard to anti-ship weapons. In 1959 the Soviet Union supplied China with P-15/SS-N-2 Styx missiles, which were manufactured under license as the SY-1/CSS-N-1 Scrubbrush. In the 1960s China developed the missile into the Hai Ying-1 (HY-1/CSSC-2 Silkworm/CSS-N-2 Safflower) but (it leaves a turbulent airflow in their wake, which makes it difficult to deliver a sprayed pathogen or chemical agent cloud and) they fly along a predictable path towards the target rather than one that can realign itself to match the geometry of the target. Later the improved HY-2/C-201/CSSC-3 Seersucker. From this family emerged the turbojet-powered HY-4/CSSC-7 Sadsack and air-launched YJ-6/C-601/CAS-1 Kraken. The YJ-61/C-611 is an upgraded, extended range version, which entered service in 1990. China also produced the HY-3/C-301/CSSC-6 Sawhorse and YJ-16/C-101/CSSC-5 Saples missiles. The latter had, by 2005 been replaced by the C-801 and C-802. Since 1998, China has not offered the HY-4 for export.
China developed the YJ-6 into the KD-63 (Kong Di-63)/YJ-63 air-launched cruise missile, which emerged into open view in 2005. It was most likely the first indigenous long-range airborne standoff weapon to be fielded by the People’s Liberation Army Air Force and incorporated systems such as electro-optical seeker and data-link. The anti-ship YJ-2/YJ-82 (C-802)/CSSC-8/CSS-N-8 Saccade was first seen in 1989 and is based on the YJ-1/C-801 but replaced the solid propellant rocket with a turbojet. The YJ-83 (C-803) is a more modern supersonic version of the YJ-82, apparently having a range of 150-250 km. It can be launched from the air, ships and submarine torpedo tubes.
China’s military power, the Second Artillery Corps has already deployed between 150 and 350 DH-10s, which complement the corps’ huge inventory of more than 1,000 ballistic missiles facing Taiwan. Taipei, for its part, first tested its HF-2E land-attack cruise missile in 2005 and seeks to extend its current 600-kilometer range to at least 1,000 kilometers, to reach targets such as Shanghai, and potentially 2,000 kilometers, so that even Beijing is within range. As many as 500 HF-2E cruise missiles were originally sought for deployment on mobile launchers.
China has a number of Russian cruise missiles in service, including the 600 km range Kh-65SE and Kh-41 Moskit (SS-N-22 Sunburn) supersonic sea-skimming anti-ship cruise missile, which has a range of 250 km. In addition, the 3M-54 Club (SS-N-27 Sizzler) is placed on China’s Kilo-class submarines. Ukraine apparently exported 3 000 km range nuclear capable Kh-55 (AS-15 Kent) missiles to China.
Not to be outdone, South Korea announced after North Korea’s nuclear test in 2006 that it had four new land-attack cruise missiles under development with ranges between 500 and 1,500 kilometers. The South Korean press took immediate note that all of North Korea, as well as Tokyo and Beijing, would be within range of these new cruise missiles. Even Japan, a nation whose constitution renounces war and offensive forces, is toying with the prospect of acquiring land-attack cruise missiles.
Bangladesh, Brunei, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam all have anti-ship cruise missiles, including the C-801, C-802, AGM-84 Harpoon, HY-2, Exocet, Gabriel, Kh-31, Kh-35, Kh-41 and Kh-59.
In the Middle East, Israel was once the sole country possessing land-attack cruise missiles, but now Iran is pursuing cruise missile programs for land and sea attack, including the reported conversion of 300 Chinese HY-2 anti-ship cruise missiles into land-attack systems. Iran’s surreptitious acquisition via arms dealers in Ukraine of at least six Russian Kh-55 nuclear-capable, long-range (about 3,000 kilometres) cruise missiles.
China has a long history of local cruise missile development, particularly with regard to anti-ship weapons. In 1959 the Soviet Union supplied China with P-15/SS-N-2 Styx missiles, which were manufactured under license as the SY-1/CSS-N-1 Scrubbrush. In the 1960s China developed the missile into the Hai Ying-1 (HY-1/CSSC-2 Silkworm/CSS-N-2 Safflower) but (it leaves a turbulent airflow in their wake, which makes it difficult to deliver a sprayed pathogen or chemical agent cloud and) they fly along a predictable path towards the target rather than one that can realign itself to match the geometry of the target. Later the improved HY-2/C-201/CSSC-3 Seersucker. From this family emerged the turbojet-powered HY-4/CSSC-7 Sadsack and air-launched YJ-6/C-601/CAS-1 Kraken. The YJ-61/C-611 is an upgraded, extended range version, which entered service in 1990. China also produced the HY-3/C-301/CSSC-6 Sawhorse and YJ-16/C-101/CSSC-5 Saples missiles. The latter had, by 2005 been replaced by the C-801 and C-802. Since 1998, China has not offered the HY-4 for export.
China developed the YJ-6 into the KD-63 (Kong Di-63)/YJ-63 air-launched cruise missile, which emerged into open view in 2005. It was most likely the first indigenous long-range airborne standoff weapon to be fielded by the People’s Liberation Army Air Force and incorporated systems such as electro-optical seeker and data-link. The anti-ship YJ-2/YJ-82 (C-802)/CSSC-8/CSS-N-8 Saccade was first seen in 1989 and is based on the YJ-1/C-801 but replaced the solid propellant rocket with a turbojet. The YJ-83 (C-803) is a more modern supersonic version of the YJ-82, apparently having a range of 150-250 km. It can be launched from the air, ships and submarine torpedo tubes.
China’s military power, the Second Artillery Corps has already deployed between 150 and 350 DH-10s, which complement the corps’ huge inventory of more than 1,000 ballistic missiles facing Taiwan. Taipei, for its part, first tested its HF-2E land-attack cruise missile in 2005 and seeks to extend its current 600-kilometer range to at least 1,000 kilometers, to reach targets such as Shanghai, and potentially 2,000 kilometers, so that even Beijing is within range. As many as 500 HF-2E cruise missiles were originally sought for deployment on mobile launchers.
China has a number of Russian cruise missiles in service, including the 600 km range Kh-65SE and Kh-41 Moskit (SS-N-22 Sunburn) supersonic sea-skimming anti-ship cruise missile, which has a range of 250 km. In addition, the 3M-54 Club (SS-N-27 Sizzler) is placed on China’s Kilo-class submarines. Ukraine apparently exported 3 000 km range nuclear capable Kh-55 (AS-15 Kent) missiles to China.
Not to be outdone, South Korea announced after North Korea’s nuclear test in 2006 that it had four new land-attack cruise missiles under development with ranges between 500 and 1,500 kilometers. The South Korean press took immediate note that all of North Korea, as well as Tokyo and Beijing, would be within range of these new cruise missiles. Even Japan, a nation whose constitution renounces war and offensive forces, is toying with the prospect of acquiring land-attack cruise missiles.
Bangladesh, Brunei, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam all have anti-ship cruise missiles, including the C-801, C-802, AGM-84 Harpoon, HY-2, Exocet, Gabriel, Kh-31, Kh-35, Kh-41 and Kh-59.
CM-400AKG is a smaller and lighter version of the YJ-12 anti-ship missile. It appears that China's CM-400AKG air-launched anti-ship cruise missile may have evolved from the earlier (Shen-Ying: Divine Eagle) 180 km SY-400 short-range tactical guided "rocket"-powered missile based on Wei-Shi WS-2/3 series predecessors. Pakistan has ordered 60 additional CM-400AKG supersonic cruise missiles for the air force for USD $100 million.
Russia, the heart of the former Soviet Union, has produced a great many cruise missiles, both in types and quantities over the years, from the 1960s-vintage SS-N-3 Styx, through the latest supersonic SS-N-22 and SS-N-27 anti-ship weapons. SS-N-30 is in fact just one part of the larger Kalibr family of Russian sea-launched missiles, which includes the SS-N-27 (Sizzler) anti-ship cruise missile and the 91R anti-submarine missile.
3M-54 Kalibr-NK (NATO: SS-N-30A) is a new-generation smaller, low-altitude, high-precision guided, (sea-launched) cruise missile (improved 3M-54E / 3M14E NATO: SS-N-27 'Klub' Sizzler), which is based on a Soviet larger long-range Granat cruise missile, which, in turn, was a Soviet response to the American Tomhawk (TLAM-N). It has an estimated range of around 1,500 to 2,500 km and has become a mainstay in the Russian Navy’s ground-strike capabilities. Kalibr missiles are reported to have dual (nuclear and conventional) capability.
The export 3M-54K & 3M-54T version are smaller in size which achieves two purposes: first, the new anti-ship missile had to fit into standard NATO torpedo tubes (which are shorter than the Soviet standard) and it had to have a range less than 300 km to remain under the MTCR-mandated limit (Granat had the range of 3,000 km).
The export 3M-54K & 3M-54T version are smaller in size which achieves two purposes: first, the new anti-ship missile had to fit into standard NATO torpedo tubes (which are shorter than the Soviet standard) and it had to have a range less than 300 km to remain under the MTCR-mandated limit (Granat had the range of 3,000 km).
Ukraine recently admitted that it sold up to a dozen copies of the ultra-long-range, thermonuclear-warhead-capable AS-15 Kent to both Iran & China.
China's YJ-18 supersonic ASCM is very similar to Russia's Novator 3M-54E / 3M14E (NATO: SS-N-27 'Klub' Sizzler) subsonic land-attack cruise missile (LACM). YJ-18 is a new development of the missile which can be vertically launched from naval combatants such as the Type 052D destroyer and submarines. (NATO: SS-N-22 Sunburn actually references two different missiles, both the P-80 Zubr & the P-270 Moskit/Mosquito).
YJ-18 is an upgraded version of the liquid-fuelled YJ-12 / CM-302, which is a copy of Russia's P-270 supersonic ramjet powered ASCM (range 250 km and a top speed of Mach 2.5 to Mach 3). C-301 supersonic coastal defense missile is the basis for other members of the C-300 series anti-ship missile, C-302 and C-303.
The Moskit was originally designed to be the ship-launched 3M80 missile, but variants have been adapted to be launched from land, air (Kh-41) and submarines. Variants of the missile have been designated 3M80M, 3M82 (Moskit M). The 3M82 "Mosquito" missiles have the fastest flying speed among all anti-ship missiles in today's world. It reaches a speed of Mach 3 at high altitude and Mach 2.2 at low-altitude.
Klub family is a multi-role missile system. It is intended for use against static ground targets. There are two major versions: the Klub-S, designed for launch from submarines, and the Klub-N, designed for launch from surface ships. The 3M-54E1 subsonic version of the missile is roughly comparable to both the American Tomahawk cruise missile and the ASROC missile but is smaller and has a shorter range.
The system is designed to accept various warheads, allowing its use against surface and subsurface naval combatants along with static land targets. In one variant, the 3M-54E (Sizzler), the final stage makes a supersonic 'sprint' to its target, reducing the time the target's defense systems have to react.
Partially due to the limited information available on YJ-12 / CM-302, it is often mistaken for another little known Chinese supersonic anti-ship cruise missile YJ-22, the Chinese equivalent of SS-N-22. Additionally, YJ-12 is also sometimes confused with YJ-91 by non-Chinese sources (as both share the same origin for their propulsion systems). Some American analysts believe that the YJ-12 anti-ship cruise missile is the biggest threat to U.S. Navy aircraft carriers in the western Pacific that China can employ, even greater than the DF-21D anti-ship ballistic missile. A U.S. Navy study found that the YJ-12 was one of the world's longest-range anti-ship missiles at 400 km.
Most of the technologies of liquid-fuelled YJ-12 / CM-302 are based on YJ-83 / C-803. It has a range of 215kms to 400 km and a top speed of Mach 4. It is first propelled a distance of 178 km by the missile’s turbojet engine at a speed of Mach 0.8 and that for the remaining distance, it can fly at an even faster speed of Mach 2.5-3. It is claimed that the processing and storage capability of the new microchip is expanded multi-fold in comparison to that is used on C-803, thus improving the performance of the highly digitized seeker of C-803 used on YJ-12, without making any other changes. However, due to the limitations and backwardness of Chinese microelectronic industry, the unit cost of the microchip was expensive, driving up the price of the missile. The developer of YJ-12 claimed that YJ-12 and YJ-91 were in different classes, with YJ-12 having longer range and instead of competing with each other, the two missiles would complement each other, YJ-91 for targets that were closer, while YJ-12 for targets further away.
The YJ-2 began development in 1985, and was initially based on small turbojet technology stolen from U.S. BQM-34 Firebee drones recovered by the Chinese. This technology was later supplemented by auxiliary power units imported for use on civil aircraft programs.
Iran has acquired some of the same Russian-made AS-15 Kent thermonuclear-warhead-capable strategic cruise missiles that were illegally exported by the Ukrainian government to China. Iran has developed an air-launched version of the C-802 anti-ship cruise missile with Chinese help. Iran also has received copies of the highly-capable Russian-made SS-N-22 Sunburn supersonic anti-ship missile.
The YJ-83 is an improved version of the YJ-2, on which development was started in 1992. It has been reported that the YJ-83 version has the capability to cruise at supersonic speed.
The Chinese DF-21 (CSS-5) solid fuel IRBM is based on the technology from the circa 1973 Soviet SS-NX-13 anti-ship submarine launched ballistic missile system. Designed to destroy an American carrier battle groups (CVBG) using a low yield nuclear warhead, the launch vehicle was based on the air-frame of the stored liquid propellant R-27 / SS-N-6 Serb SLBM.
China's YJ-18 supersonic ASCM is very similar to Russia's Novator 3M-54E / 3M14E (NATO: SS-N-27 'Klub' Sizzler) subsonic land-attack cruise missile (LACM). YJ-18 is a new development of the missile which can be vertically launched from naval combatants such as the Type 052D destroyer and submarines. (NATO: SS-N-22 Sunburn actually references two different missiles, both the P-80 Zubr & the P-270 Moskit/Mosquito).
YJ-18 is an upgraded version of the liquid-fuelled YJ-12 / CM-302, which is a copy of Russia's P-270 supersonic ramjet powered ASCM (range 250 km and a top speed of Mach 2.5 to Mach 3). C-301 supersonic coastal defense missile is the basis for other members of the C-300 series anti-ship missile, C-302 and C-303.
The Moskit was originally designed to be the ship-launched 3M80 missile, but variants have been adapted to be launched from land, air (Kh-41) and submarines. Variants of the missile have been designated 3M80M, 3M82 (Moskit M). The 3M82 "Mosquito" missiles have the fastest flying speed among all anti-ship missiles in today's world. It reaches a speed of Mach 3 at high altitude and Mach 2.2 at low-altitude.
Klub family is a multi-role missile system. It is intended for use against static ground targets. There are two major versions: the Klub-S, designed for launch from submarines, and the Klub-N, designed for launch from surface ships. The 3M-54E1 subsonic version of the missile is roughly comparable to both the American Tomahawk cruise missile and the ASROC missile but is smaller and has a shorter range.
The system is designed to accept various warheads, allowing its use against surface and subsurface naval combatants along with static land targets. In one variant, the 3M-54E (Sizzler), the final stage makes a supersonic 'sprint' to its target, reducing the time the target's defense systems have to react.
Partially due to the limited information available on YJ-12 / CM-302, it is often mistaken for another little known Chinese supersonic anti-ship cruise missile YJ-22, the Chinese equivalent of SS-N-22. Additionally, YJ-12 is also sometimes confused with YJ-91 by non-Chinese sources (as both share the same origin for their propulsion systems). Some American analysts believe that the YJ-12 anti-ship cruise missile is the biggest threat to U.S. Navy aircraft carriers in the western Pacific that China can employ, even greater than the DF-21D anti-ship ballistic missile. A U.S. Navy study found that the YJ-12 was one of the world's longest-range anti-ship missiles at 400 km.
Most of the technologies of liquid-fuelled YJ-12 / CM-302 are based on YJ-83 / C-803. It has a range of 215kms to 400 km and a top speed of Mach 4. It is first propelled a distance of 178 km by the missile’s turbojet engine at a speed of Mach 0.8 and that for the remaining distance, it can fly at an even faster speed of Mach 2.5-3. It is claimed that the processing and storage capability of the new microchip is expanded multi-fold in comparison to that is used on C-803, thus improving the performance of the highly digitized seeker of C-803 used on YJ-12, without making any other changes. However, due to the limitations and backwardness of Chinese microelectronic industry, the unit cost of the microchip was expensive, driving up the price of the missile. The developer of YJ-12 claimed that YJ-12 and YJ-91 were in different classes, with YJ-12 having longer range and instead of competing with each other, the two missiles would complement each other, YJ-91 for targets that were closer, while YJ-12 for targets further away.
The YJ-2 began development in 1985, and was initially based on small turbojet technology stolen from U.S. BQM-34 Firebee drones recovered by the Chinese. This technology was later supplemented by auxiliary power units imported for use on civil aircraft programs.
Iran has acquired some of the same Russian-made AS-15 Kent thermonuclear-warhead-capable strategic cruise missiles that were illegally exported by the Ukrainian government to China. Iran has developed an air-launched version of the C-802 anti-ship cruise missile with Chinese help. Iran also has received copies of the highly-capable Russian-made SS-N-22 Sunburn supersonic anti-ship missile.
The YJ-83 is an improved version of the YJ-2, on which development was started in 1992. It has been reported that the YJ-83 version has the capability to cruise at supersonic speed.
The Chinese DF-21 (CSS-5) solid fuel IRBM is based on the technology from the circa 1973 Soviet SS-NX-13 anti-ship submarine launched ballistic missile system. Designed to destroy an American carrier battle groups (CVBG) using a low yield nuclear warhead, the launch vehicle was based on the air-frame of the stored liquid propellant R-27 / SS-N-6 Serb SLBM.
PJ-10 BrahMos SSM missile is Russia's P-800 Yakhont / 3M55 Oniks / Bastion (SS-N-26) supersonic anti-ship cruise missile Ramjet version is P-80 Zubr (SS-N-7 Starbright). It is propelled by a solid-fuel first booster stage and a liquid-fuel ramjet second stage. If required, launcher vehicles can operate autonomously. DRDO has the technology for inclined launched firing modules but not vertically launched firing modules for its missiles, so India has to import it. By 2018, the missile had reached 65% to 75% indigenisation by value, from 10-12 per cent in early years. Two private companies were also part of the development of the indigenous seeker.
BrahMos-A (air-launched smaller Brahmos minus its booster) is a 2.5-3 ton missile that can carry 200 kg warhead at the speed of Mach 2.8 and has a range of 290 km. It to be able to be launched by Rafale, MiG-29UPG and carrier-based MiG-29Ks, and it will also be capable of being launched from a submarine’s 533mm torpedo-tubes (X-band IMR seeker of the Nirbhay SLCM will also be used in the BrahMos-A). The cost of Brahmos-A air-launched missile will be over Rs 15 crore each.
BrahMos-A (air-launched smaller Brahmos minus its booster) is a 2.5-3 ton missile that can carry 200 kg warhead at the speed of Mach 2.8 and has a range of 290 km. It to be able to be launched by Rafale, MiG-29UPG and carrier-based MiG-29Ks, and it will also be capable of being launched from a submarine’s 533mm torpedo-tubes (X-band IMR seeker of the Nirbhay SLCM will also be used in the BrahMos-A). The cost of Brahmos-A air-launched missile will be over Rs 15 crore each.
"BrahMos-1 land-attack version does not require any fire-control cues from any radar. Only the anti-ship version requires target acquisition/identification cues. Hence, the anti-ship version of BrahMos-1 will not be 550km-range & will continue to have 290km-range."
While Air-Force version BrahMos-1 Block-1/Mark-I and Army version BrahMos-1 Block-2/Mark-II "land-attack" are to be used against static installations like transportation / logistics nodes and battlefield POL and weapons storage dumps, the BrahMos-1 Block-3/Block-III and Nirbhay missiles will be employed for the destruction of air bases and ballistic/cruise missiles storage areas/launch-pads, deep inside enemy territory.
It has very sharp maneuver capability to hit the target at 90-degree angles or to attack ‘right over the head’ or ‘from the top’”. This terrain hugging missile can be guided through very sharp maneuvers at supersonic speed touching upto Mach-3 (three times the speed of sound) to hit targets cradled between Himalayan peaks up to 290 km away.
Another important feature of the upgraded BrahMos missile is that it has added GPS-GLONASS technology to it. This is of vital strategic importance as GLONASS, Russia’s navigation service provider, gives India access to military signals, while the American GPS does not. It's also combined with India’s Gagan systems. The BrahMos missile for the Su-30 MKI is a combination of lethal strike with the ability of air fighting within and beyond the visibility range.
- (290km-range) BrahMos-1 Block-1/Mark-I Air-Force version entered service with the Indian Navy in 2005 after a series of successful test launches starting from 2001. Being big, BrahMos cannot be fitted in the torpedo tubes of submarines.
- (290km-range) BrahMos-1 Block-2/Mark-II "land-attack" Army version entered service with the Indian Army in June 2007. It has been developed with improved seeker with target discrimination guidance capability to act as a precision-strike weapon in a "clustered urban environment".
- (550km-range) BrahMos-1 Block-3/Block-III complex ground-launched ‘top-attack’ entered the service of Indian Army in 2014. In 2010, this version of the missile was tested for the first time. The missile capabilities partly demonstrated is to climb to about 14 kms before taking a 65-degree "steep-dive" to hit vertically those targets hidden behind mountains.
With 90-degree angle-of-attack capability, this is also being projected as an aircraft carrier killer.
Another new version of the BrahMos-1 Block-3/Block-III missile, called BrahMos-ER (550 km to 650km range), was tested in 2017. Another version, with a range of 800 kms, is under development.
- BrahMos Block-IV Army version will have a “surround capability, to hit hidden targets laterally from the side of mountains.”
While Air-Force version BrahMos-1 Block-1/Mark-I and Army version BrahMos-1 Block-2/Mark-II "land-attack" are to be used against static installations like transportation / logistics nodes and battlefield POL and weapons storage dumps, the BrahMos-1 Block-3/Block-III and Nirbhay missiles will be employed for the destruction of air bases and ballistic/cruise missiles storage areas/launch-pads, deep inside enemy territory.
It has very sharp maneuver capability to hit the target at 90-degree angles or to attack ‘right over the head’ or ‘from the top’”. This terrain hugging missile can be guided through very sharp maneuvers at supersonic speed touching upto Mach-3 (three times the speed of sound) to hit targets cradled between Himalayan peaks up to 290 km away.
Another important feature of the upgraded BrahMos missile is that it has added GPS-GLONASS technology to it. This is of vital strategic importance as GLONASS, Russia’s navigation service provider, gives India access to military signals, while the American GPS does not. It's also combined with India’s Gagan systems. The BrahMos missile for the Su-30 MKI is a combination of lethal strike with the ability of air fighting within and beyond the visibility range.
India's 8-8.2 m long, 0.67 m wide PJ-10 BrahMos SSM missile is modeled on an earlier export version of P-800 Yakhont / 3M55 Oniks supersonic missile. Bastion-P is another variant. 120 km K-300P Bastion-P coastline defense missile system carries two supersonic P-800 Yakhont (SS-N-26) encapsulated anti-ship cruise missiles. Its NATO reporting name is SS-N-26 Sapless or Stallion. It has improved from 30 metres to 10 metres, and now the target is reducing it to one metre. IAF now has a world record of using conventional airborne weapon (on SU-30MKI) to have direct hits on targets in sea and land.
BrahMos still has 65% imported components. Due to its liquid fueled ramjet engine and other on board sensors makes it a very expensive weapon system which also limits its usage to high-value targets. The high price of each missile, about $2.3 million, restricts the number of countries that can afford it. BrahMos average cost 45.94 crore. The land version of BrahMos was seen as an effective coast defence weapon. Against ships, it is worth the cost. That's why it has the high speed and elaborate guidance system. BrahMos was designed to hit a moving target, and do so at high speed, to make defensive measures less effective. However, there are ballistic missiles as well as bomb and missile carrying jets to target land bases.
BrahMos was an accidental venture as a consequence of the sudden demise of the Soviet Union in 1990, followed by the 1991 Gulf War, which catapulted the Tomahawk cruise missile to an iconic status. On the one hand, Russia, as the Soviet inheritor state, was hard-pressed for cash and on the verge of closing down its flight-tested cruise missile programme. On the other hand, the Defence Research and Development Programme, having gained capabilities from the indigenous 1982 Integrated Guided Missile Programme, and struck by the Tomahawk success, was eager to start work on cruise missiles. Lacking money to stop the development when the Cold War ended in 1991, and the Russians made a deal with India to finish the job. US was eager to prevent Iran or China from getting the missile, which was originally developed as an aircraft carrier killer. India put up most of the $240 million needed to complete two decades of development. Russia sold this missile technology to India, but it cannot be armed with a tactical nuclear warhead until Russia's withdraws from its MTCR commitments.
The development of 3M55/P-800 Oniks/Yakhont (SS-N-26) officially began in 1983, and in 2001 allowed the missile launching land, sea, air and underwater. It is apparently a replacement for the P-270 Moskit, but possibly also for the P-700 Granit. The breakthrough for both came with the setting-up of the BrahMos Aerospace on 12 February 1998 located in New Delhi. In a novel concept, BrahMos became a Government-owned private company with equal partnership and operational control with a share of 50.5% for the DRDO and 49.5% for the Russian NPO Mashinostroeyenia Company. India has contributed about Rs 850 crore at current exchange rates. The DRDO has spent another Rs 370 crores on developing Brahmos systems.
The newly developed cruise missile is more than a match to similar anti-ship missiles available with China. The latter has mounted Moskit anti-ship missiles on its recently acquired Soverameny-class warships. Beijing is also planning to mount its aerial version of the Moskit on its SU-27 planes. The Indian cruise missile with its supersonic speed will be able to check movements by the Chinese warships, especially in the Indian Ocean area. Besides, its extraordinary accuracy and speed increases the range of its targets. It is believed to be, the world's fastest cruise missile (Mach 3) - the BrahMos SSM. It only entered service in 2006, and yet Russia and India are already working on its successor - the hypersonic (Mach 7) BrahMos-II.
BrahMos can carry 300 kilograms payload at 290 kms (under 300 kms as per The Missile Technology Control Regime limit) with a speed of 2.8 Mach. However, it gas extra fuel space and when filled up, the missile has a range of 550-600 kms. How far a cruise missile will go depends on its engine; the simpler turbojet which travels short distances or the complex turbofan which can carry payloads up to thousands of kilometres. BrahMos is one of its kind which uses a combination of booster and liquid fuelled ramjet engine which gives it supersonic speed (more than the speed of sound described as Mach One). This leads to its other advantage. With more speed than other cruise missiles, BrahMos reduces the target into smithereens with its high kinetic energy impact.
Owing to its high kinetic energy at the terminal stage, BrahMos has a high penetration potential, but subject to the warhead retaining its shape during impact and penetration. The weight of its warhead, which indicates the quantum of explosive carried, indicates that the damage caused by BrahMos would be akin to one 1000-pound bomb. This is a limiting factor. The low quantity of explosives carried coupled with the fact that one aircraft would be able to carry only one weapon necessitate a high force level. In other words, a very large number of aircraft loaded with BrahMos will be required to neutralise a large target. Although BrahMos itself can be intercepted, owing to its relatively smaller RCS and high speed in the range of 2.8 to 3 Mach, interception is much more difficult than intercepting a fully loaded aircraft. This leads to a high assurance level of success of an attack.
BrahMos still has 65% imported components. Due to its liquid fueled ramjet engine and other on board sensors makes it a very expensive weapon system which also limits its usage to high-value targets. The high price of each missile, about $2.3 million, restricts the number of countries that can afford it. BrahMos average cost 45.94 crore. The land version of BrahMos was seen as an effective coast defence weapon. Against ships, it is worth the cost. That's why it has the high speed and elaborate guidance system. BrahMos was designed to hit a moving target, and do so at high speed, to make defensive measures less effective. However, there are ballistic missiles as well as bomb and missile carrying jets to target land bases.
BrahMos was an accidental venture as a consequence of the sudden demise of the Soviet Union in 1990, followed by the 1991 Gulf War, which catapulted the Tomahawk cruise missile to an iconic status. On the one hand, Russia, as the Soviet inheritor state, was hard-pressed for cash and on the verge of closing down its flight-tested cruise missile programme. On the other hand, the Defence Research and Development Programme, having gained capabilities from the indigenous 1982 Integrated Guided Missile Programme, and struck by the Tomahawk success, was eager to start work on cruise missiles. Lacking money to stop the development when the Cold War ended in 1991, and the Russians made a deal with India to finish the job. US was eager to prevent Iran or China from getting the missile, which was originally developed as an aircraft carrier killer. India put up most of the $240 million needed to complete two decades of development. Russia sold this missile technology to India, but it cannot be armed with a tactical nuclear warhead until Russia's withdraws from its MTCR commitments.
The development of 3M55/P-800 Oniks/Yakhont (SS-N-26) officially began in 1983, and in 2001 allowed the missile launching land, sea, air and underwater. It is apparently a replacement for the P-270 Moskit, but possibly also for the P-700 Granit. The breakthrough for both came with the setting-up of the BrahMos Aerospace on 12 February 1998 located in New Delhi. In a novel concept, BrahMos became a Government-owned private company with equal partnership and operational control with a share of 50.5% for the DRDO and 49.5% for the Russian NPO Mashinostroeyenia Company. India has contributed about Rs 850 crore at current exchange rates. The DRDO has spent another Rs 370 crores on developing Brahmos systems.
The newly developed cruise missile is more than a match to similar anti-ship missiles available with China. The latter has mounted Moskit anti-ship missiles on its recently acquired Soverameny-class warships. Beijing is also planning to mount its aerial version of the Moskit on its SU-27 planes. The Indian cruise missile with its supersonic speed will be able to check movements by the Chinese warships, especially in the Indian Ocean area. Besides, its extraordinary accuracy and speed increases the range of its targets. It is believed to be, the world's fastest cruise missile (Mach 3) - the BrahMos SSM. It only entered service in 2006, and yet Russia and India are already working on its successor - the hypersonic (Mach 7) BrahMos-II.
BrahMos can carry 300 kilograms payload at 290 kms (under 300 kms as per The Missile Technology Control Regime limit) with a speed of 2.8 Mach. However, it gas extra fuel space and when filled up, the missile has a range of 550-600 kms. How far a cruise missile will go depends on its engine; the simpler turbojet which travels short distances or the complex turbofan which can carry payloads up to thousands of kilometres. BrahMos is one of its kind which uses a combination of booster and liquid fuelled ramjet engine which gives it supersonic speed (more than the speed of sound described as Mach One). This leads to its other advantage. With more speed than other cruise missiles, BrahMos reduces the target into smithereens with its high kinetic energy impact.
Owing to its high kinetic energy at the terminal stage, BrahMos has a high penetration potential, but subject to the warhead retaining its shape during impact and penetration. The weight of its warhead, which indicates the quantum of explosive carried, indicates that the damage caused by BrahMos would be akin to one 1000-pound bomb. This is a limiting factor. The low quantity of explosives carried coupled with the fact that one aircraft would be able to carry only one weapon necessitate a high force level. In other words, a very large number of aircraft loaded with BrahMos will be required to neutralise a large target. Although BrahMos itself can be intercepted, owing to its relatively smaller RCS and high speed in the range of 2.8 to 3 Mach, interception is much more difficult than intercepting a fully loaded aircraft. This leads to a high assurance level of success of an attack.
Russia had offered to do it at a cost of $200 million (Rs 1,300 crore approx). For the first time in its history, HAL decided to absorb the design and development costs, waive the profit element and contingency costs and finalise a technology project for only Rs 80 crore. Our designers in Nashik went into the details of the challenges involved and a few months later, we confirmed we could do it. The integration of Brahmos Air Launch Cruise Missile (ALCM) greatly enhances IAF’s ability to strike heavily defended targets deep into enemy territory, up to a range of 2,100 km (or 3,900 kms with a refueller) and wide strike range of 290 km is now available from Indian borders.
More than 100 Indian companies involving 20,000 specialists, engineers and technicians work on Brahmos manufacturing and technical modifications. Modification of the Su-30 MKI for Brahmos integration involved safe stores separation analysis consisting of wind tunnel and CFD (computational fluid dynamics) analysis. Watertight NMG (numerical master geometry) of the aircraft had to be generated from 2D drawings. Structural modifications had to be within the aircraft’s centre of gravity (CG) envelope and in such a way that they did not alter vibration characteristics. Carriage and release actuation along with electrical and avionics integration was another challenge. FTI (flight test instrumentation) for the operations along with missile system software modifications also had to be undertaken. All this was done by a consortium of Indian industry led by HAL.
The father of ‘BrahMos’ cruise missile, Apathukatha Sivathanu Pillai, was conferred the Lal Bahadur Shastri National Award for 2014. He is also a recipient of civilian honours Padma Shree in 2002 and Padma Bhushan in 2013. He was formerly served as Chief Controller of research and Development from year 1996 to 2014 and is on the rank of “Distinguished Scientist” from year 1999 to 2014 at DRDO. Pillai has also contributed to the successful development of SLV3, India’s first satellite launch vehicle, as a core team member and in the evolution of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) configuration for Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). | BrahMos-NG (previously known as BrahMos-M where M stands for Mini) is a shorter-range tactical missile based on the high-precision, ground-launched 9M728/9 Iskander ballistic missile (which is a modified version of the sea-launched 3M-14 cruise missile). It will be a compact engine with better energy propellant which will not compromise on 300 kilometre range; narrower diametre and 50% lighter-weight; a digital fuel injection system enabling increases of the missile’s speed from Mach 2.8 to Mach 3.3; and better packaging and routing of pipes with computer aided design and latest electronics. The most critical sub-systems on-board (30%) will be imported from Russia. The guidance in addition to the present G3 combination will also come from indigenous satellite navigation constellation — Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System. It will weigh 1.4 tonne for the Air Force version and 1.6 tonne for the navy version. It will have sufficient redundancies to include anti-radiation, Radio Frequency and Imaging Infra-Red capabilities. |
China has unveiled the CX-1 supersonic anti-ship cruise missile, which seems to be a shorted-ranged version of the Russian 3M45/P-700 Shipwreck or 3M80/P-270 Moskit (which has a range of up to 120 km). The P-700 was derived from the P-500 Bazalt missile with a turbojet in the 1970s and was designed to replace the P-70 Ametist and P-120 Malakhit. The P-700 was in turn developed into the Russian 3M55/P-800 Oniks/Yakhont (SS-N-26) with ramjet propulsion (which became PJ-10 BrahMos). Perhaps, the CX-1 was produced by China using an analogue of the Moskit with modifications. Both China's CX-1 and Indo-Russian PJ-10 BrahMos share the distinctive cone-inlet air intake, a two-stage structure and speed Mach 2.8-3.0. It is also longer than the PJ-10 BrahMos and has a different engine.
CX-1 has a radar seeker and uses a Lo-High-Lo flight profile. Chinese reports do say its range is between 50km and 280km. This means it is likely an export model to comply with the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR). It is initially being marketed as a ground-launched anti-ship cruise missile that can be used in concert with other CALT products like the M-20 short-range ballistic missile and several artillery rockets, cued by unmanned aerial vehicles. Later versions are expected to be vertically-launched from ships and perhaps submarines. A longer range version may be nearing PLA Navy service entry.
CX-1 has a radar seeker and uses a Lo-High-Lo flight profile. Chinese reports do say its range is between 50km and 280km. This means it is likely an export model to comply with the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR). It is initially being marketed as a ground-launched anti-ship cruise missile that can be used in concert with other CALT products like the M-20 short-range ballistic missile and several artillery rockets, cued by unmanned aerial vehicles. Later versions are expected to be vertically-launched from ships and perhaps submarines. A longer range version may be nearing PLA Navy service entry.
The mighty Kh-22 (AS-4 Kitchen) was the weapon which stimulated the development of the SPY-1 Aegis system. The Kh-22 is a formidable weapon by any measure, powered by an Isayev R-201-300 (S5.33) liquid rocket delivering 83 kN full thrust and 5.9 kN cruise thrust, it is claimed to exceed 4.6 Mach in cruise at 80,000 ft AGL. Around 3 tonnes of propellant and oxidiser are carried - the highly toxic fuel presents serious handling problems in fuelling up the missile.
Designed during the 1960s for dual role use as a nuclear armed standoff weapon equivalent to the RAF's Blue Steel, and as an anti-shipping missile with either radar or anti-radiation seekers, the Kh-22 remains in service as the primary armament of the RuAF's residual fleet of Tu-22M3 Backfires. While the Tu-95K-22 Bear G was equipped to carry up to three Kh-22s, its progressive retirement has limited use to the Backfire.
Designed during the 1960s for dual role use as a nuclear armed standoff weapon equivalent to the RAF's Blue Steel, and as an anti-shipping missile with either radar or anti-radiation seekers, the Kh-22 remains in service as the primary armament of the RuAF's residual fleet of Tu-22M3 Backfires. While the Tu-95K-22 Bear G was equipped to carry up to three Kh-22s, its progressive retirement has limited use to the Backfire.
SS-N-3C 'Shaddock' / SS-N-3B 'Sepal' (P-5 system with 4K48 missile ) is USSR's first anti-ship cruise missile submarines with an inertial guidance system, surface and launch the world's first carrier to automatic straightening the wing. Russian response to U.S. missile remotely operated SSM-N-8 Regulus-I (1951).
The first major contribution of OKB-52 (later called NPO Mashinostroyeniya) was a ship-launched missile. The USSR had already developed such a weapon, the "Schuka", later "P-1 KSShch", with the NATO codename "SS-N-1 Scrubber". Incidentally, "Scrubber" in British usage roughly equates to the US term "bimbo". OKB-52 was assigned to take another shot at the concept, and proved much more successful.
Because of the large variation in the accuracy of fire intended for shelling of large marine and coastal targets. Equipped with a turbojet engine RD-9B C. Tumanskiy design of KB-300 "Union" and a nuclear weapon capacity of 80 kT. In the aim to start up on the basis of the projectile ("shot - Forget") on the surface of nitrogen-filled sealed containers starting with the engine warmed up. Shooting was conducted only a single gulp, when fired one missile remaining containers were stored. Flight speed and range of a shot depend on the weather and the outside temperatures. The composition of the flight control systems in the first modifications were: AP-70 autopilot with automatic course and gyro-vertical, hour meter and a barometric altimeter. Warhead non-detachable, high-explosive or nuclear warhead.
The effort was designated "Project 5 (P-5)" and focused on development of a cruise missile for launch from submarines against ground targets. Initial flight tests of the 4K95 missile for the P-5 system were in 1957 and it was accepted for service in June 1959 on board modified pr.613 (Whiskey-class) series of P613, 644 and 665 diesel-electric submarines. NATO assigned the P-5 the code-name of "SS-N-3A Shaddock".
OKB-52's P-5 was a clean design with a pencil-like fuselage; swept wings and tail surfaces that folded for storage in its launch container; a turbojet engine fed by a split engine intake under the belly; and twin RATO boosters for launch. It had a range of 500 kilometers (310 miles) and an autonomous inertial navigation system (INS) for guidance. Given the limited accuracy of guidance systems at the time, presumably the P-5 was generally or always armed with a nuclear warhead. An improved variant, the "P-5D", with an additional Doppler radar navigation unit, was introduced to service in 1962 and was carried by ECHO I class nuclear submarines. Five ECHO Is were built, but the Red Navy soon got out of the strategic nuclear cruise missile business, and they were all converted to a pure attack configuration later in the 1960s. The P-5D was also produced as a surface-to-surface weapon for tactical use, receiving the NATO code-name of "SSC-1A Shaddock".
Even as the land-attack P-5 was being put into service, OKB-52 was working on two antiship attack variants for dealing with Western aircraft carrier task forces: the "P-35" (NATO codename "SS-N-3B Sepal") for launch from surface ships, with this variant also being produced for coastal defense (NATO codename "SSC-1B Sepal"); and the "P-6" (NATO codename "SS-N-3C Shaddock") for launch from submarines.
Initial flight tests of the P-35 began in October 1959, with tests of the P-6 beginning in December 1959. The P-35 / P-6 gave Red Navy warships and submarines a formidable equalizer against Western carrier groups to match the air-launched missiles being fielded by the Red Air Force. However, the P-35 / P-6 did require assistance from aircraft as well.
The first major contribution of OKB-52 (later called NPO Mashinostroyeniya) was a ship-launched missile. The USSR had already developed such a weapon, the "Schuka", later "P-1 KSShch", with the NATO codename "SS-N-1 Scrubber". Incidentally, "Scrubber" in British usage roughly equates to the US term "bimbo". OKB-52 was assigned to take another shot at the concept, and proved much more successful.
Because of the large variation in the accuracy of fire intended for shelling of large marine and coastal targets. Equipped with a turbojet engine RD-9B C. Tumanskiy design of KB-300 "Union" and a nuclear weapon capacity of 80 kT. In the aim to start up on the basis of the projectile ("shot - Forget") on the surface of nitrogen-filled sealed containers starting with the engine warmed up. Shooting was conducted only a single gulp, when fired one missile remaining containers were stored. Flight speed and range of a shot depend on the weather and the outside temperatures. The composition of the flight control systems in the first modifications were: AP-70 autopilot with automatic course and gyro-vertical, hour meter and a barometric altimeter. Warhead non-detachable, high-explosive or nuclear warhead.
The effort was designated "Project 5 (P-5)" and focused on development of a cruise missile for launch from submarines against ground targets. Initial flight tests of the 4K95 missile for the P-5 system were in 1957 and it was accepted for service in June 1959 on board modified pr.613 (Whiskey-class) series of P613, 644 and 665 diesel-electric submarines. NATO assigned the P-5 the code-name of "SS-N-3A Shaddock".
OKB-52's P-5 was a clean design with a pencil-like fuselage; swept wings and tail surfaces that folded for storage in its launch container; a turbojet engine fed by a split engine intake under the belly; and twin RATO boosters for launch. It had a range of 500 kilometers (310 miles) and an autonomous inertial navigation system (INS) for guidance. Given the limited accuracy of guidance systems at the time, presumably the P-5 was generally or always armed with a nuclear warhead. An improved variant, the "P-5D", with an additional Doppler radar navigation unit, was introduced to service in 1962 and was carried by ECHO I class nuclear submarines. Five ECHO Is were built, but the Red Navy soon got out of the strategic nuclear cruise missile business, and they were all converted to a pure attack configuration later in the 1960s. The P-5D was also produced as a surface-to-surface weapon for tactical use, receiving the NATO code-name of "SSC-1A Shaddock".
Even as the land-attack P-5 was being put into service, OKB-52 was working on two antiship attack variants for dealing with Western aircraft carrier task forces: the "P-35" (NATO codename "SS-N-3B Sepal") for launch from surface ships, with this variant also being produced for coastal defense (NATO codename "SSC-1B Sepal"); and the "P-6" (NATO codename "SS-N-3C Shaddock") for launch from submarines.
Initial flight tests of the P-35 began in October 1959, with tests of the P-6 beginning in December 1959. The P-35 / P-6 gave Red Navy warships and submarines a formidable equalizer against Western carrier groups to match the air-launched missiles being fielded by the Red Air Force. However, the P-35 / P-6 did require assistance from aircraft as well.
Barak-8 70km medium-ranged, low-level, quick-reaction, anti-ship cruise SAM.
IAI (Chalet 210, Static A9) has developed Barak 8 to fulfill both land- and ship-based functions with the same missile and launcher hardware, and the same command and control functions and data links. It was designed to counter high-speed Russian-made Yakhont anti-ship missiles. Barak 8 can also handle Chinese C-802 anti-ship missiles.
The Barak-8 is fitted with a 44-pound warhead to ensure damage or destruction in near-miss engagements. The warhead has its own seeker that can find the target despite most countermeasures. The system has a very short reaction time and a fast missile. The missiles are mounted in a three ton, eight cell container (which requires little maintenance), and has vertical launch capability with 360° coverage.
The Barak 8 can operate day and night, in all weather conditions, and successfully deals with simultaneous threats engagements, even in severe saturation scenarios. The compact (for easy installation on a ship) fire control module weighs under two tons. The land version can be mounted on trucks.
The MRSAM prototype development is being carried out under secrecy here.
MRSAM is intended to intercept enemy missiles at a range of 70 kilometers. It carries an active radar seeker and a bidirectional data link for mid-course guidance and kill assessment, an Indian Air Force official said. It will also be equipped with an advanced rotating phased array radar to provide a high-quality air situation picture. The Army requirement of MRSAM is also worth more than $2 billion.
The system gives India an upgraded version of a familiar system, extends India’s technological capabilities, fosters economic ties and integration at sub-component levels, and helps the Israelis build a new system that meets some of their own emerging requirements.
In February 2006, therefore, Israel and India signed a joint development agreement to create a new Barak-NG medium ship-borne air-defense missile, as an evolution of the Barak-1 system in service with both navies. In July 2007 the counterpart MR-SAM project began moving forward, aiming to develop a medium range SAM for use with India’s land forces. Both missiles would now be called Barak-8.
In fact, a second variant called the Medium-Range SAM (MR-SAM) is also being developed for the Indian Air Force (IAF) at a cost of $ 2.2 billion. The project, signed in 2009, is expected to replace all the IAF’s aging Soviet-made Pechora SAM missiles. Besides this, a 100 kilometres range theatre defence version called the Extended Range SAM is being developed for the four Project 15B destroyers as well.
The MRSAM missiles are scheduled to equip the three Kolkata class (Project 15A) guided missile destroyers currently under construction at the Mazagon shipyards in India. These vessels will be delivered to the Indian Navy in 2012 and their Barak-8 systems are expected to become operational a year later in 2013. Four additional Kolkata class destroyers (Project15B) will be equipped with an extended range version of the missile (ER-SAM) capable of intercepting targets at a range of 100 km.
Barak 8 have incorporated an advanced multi-function electronically scanning array that continuously covers 360 degree, thereby providing a defensive shield in all directions while simultaneously functioning in target acquisition and surface search modes. In principle, each destroyer could provide air cover for a large battle group, or share defence assets with other surface combatants, to best respond to aerial or missile threats.
MR-SAM’s total would be 10 C2 centers, 18 acquisition radars, 18 guidance radars, and 54 launchers, armed with 432 ready-to-fire missiles. Some reports have placed total missile orders as high as 2,000, which would add a significant reserve stockpile to replenish missiles in any conflict.
IAI (Chalet 210, Static A9) has developed Barak 8 to fulfill both land- and ship-based functions with the same missile and launcher hardware, and the same command and control functions and data links. It was designed to counter high-speed Russian-made Yakhont anti-ship missiles. Barak 8 can also handle Chinese C-802 anti-ship missiles.
The Barak-8 is fitted with a 44-pound warhead to ensure damage or destruction in near-miss engagements. The warhead has its own seeker that can find the target despite most countermeasures. The system has a very short reaction time and a fast missile. The missiles are mounted in a three ton, eight cell container (which requires little maintenance), and has vertical launch capability with 360° coverage.
The Barak 8 can operate day and night, in all weather conditions, and successfully deals with simultaneous threats engagements, even in severe saturation scenarios. The compact (for easy installation on a ship) fire control module weighs under two tons. The land version can be mounted on trucks.
The MRSAM prototype development is being carried out under secrecy here.
MRSAM is intended to intercept enemy missiles at a range of 70 kilometers. It carries an active radar seeker and a bidirectional data link for mid-course guidance and kill assessment, an Indian Air Force official said. It will also be equipped with an advanced rotating phased array radar to provide a high-quality air situation picture. The Army requirement of MRSAM is also worth more than $2 billion.
The system gives India an upgraded version of a familiar system, extends India’s technological capabilities, fosters economic ties and integration at sub-component levels, and helps the Israelis build a new system that meets some of their own emerging requirements.
In February 2006, therefore, Israel and India signed a joint development agreement to create a new Barak-NG medium ship-borne air-defense missile, as an evolution of the Barak-1 system in service with both navies. In July 2007 the counterpart MR-SAM project began moving forward, aiming to develop a medium range SAM for use with India’s land forces. Both missiles would now be called Barak-8.
In fact, a second variant called the Medium-Range SAM (MR-SAM) is also being developed for the Indian Air Force (IAF) at a cost of $ 2.2 billion. The project, signed in 2009, is expected to replace all the IAF’s aging Soviet-made Pechora SAM missiles. Besides this, a 100 kilometres range theatre defence version called the Extended Range SAM is being developed for the four Project 15B destroyers as well.
The MRSAM missiles are scheduled to equip the three Kolkata class (Project 15A) guided missile destroyers currently under construction at the Mazagon shipyards in India. These vessels will be delivered to the Indian Navy in 2012 and their Barak-8 systems are expected to become operational a year later in 2013. Four additional Kolkata class destroyers (Project15B) will be equipped with an extended range version of the missile (ER-SAM) capable of intercepting targets at a range of 100 km.
Barak 8 have incorporated an advanced multi-function electronically scanning array that continuously covers 360 degree, thereby providing a defensive shield in all directions while simultaneously functioning in target acquisition and surface search modes. In principle, each destroyer could provide air cover for a large battle group, or share defence assets with other surface combatants, to best respond to aerial or missile threats.
MR-SAM’s total would be 10 C2 centers, 18 acquisition radars, 18 guidance radars, and 54 launchers, armed with 432 ready-to-fire missiles. Some reports have placed total missile orders as high as 2,000, which would add a significant reserve stockpile to replenish missiles in any conflict.
Astra is an all weather, 3.8 metres long missile with a diameter of 178mm, which has a launch weight of about 154-160 kg, uses solid-fuel propellant and a 15 kg HE (high-explosive) warhead, activated by a radio proximity fuse, spraying the target with shrapnel and shooting it down. After its initial poor performance, Astra was sent back to the drawing board and now has an altogether new design. Astra-1 was integrated with the ‘Bars’ radar due to India sharing the active RF seeker source-codes with Tikhomirov NIIP. The ground-launched version of Astra will be the used for VL-SRSAM on Indian warships. The technologies developed under this programme will be the building blocks for developing future variants of air-to-air and surface-to-air missiles. It has state-of-the-art on-board Electronic Counter Counter-Measures (ECCM) capability that allows it to jam radar signals from a hostile surface-to-air battery, ensuring that the missile is not tracked or shot down. It has reliabile and “highly accurate complex end-game algorithms for Single Shot Kill Probability” (SSKP) factor in both head-on and tail-chase modes. The Astra Mk1 missile features an Active RF radar seeker to find targets with a mid-course internal terminal guidance system with updates to track targets. Described as the most advanced missile in its class, the single-stage, locally-developed, high-energy HTPB solid-fuel with smokeless propellant. Astra has the capability of cruising at various altitudes while evading radar and following ‘supersonic targets’ by complicated manoeuvring its speed accordingly. A smokeless propellant makes it challenging for an enemy aircraft to spot the shooter. The missile can reportedly undertake 40 g turns close to sea level, when attacking a manoeuvring target. The missile has a maximum speed of Mach 4+ and a maximum altitude of 20 km. At Sea Level, it has a range of up to 20 to 22 km but has a range of 44 km or 45 km if launched from an altitude between 1,500 metres to 8,000 meters (around 5,000 feet) Above Sea Level and 80 km to 87 km when fired from an altitude of 3,600 meters or 12,000 feet Above Sea Level. The goal of this programme is to provide the Indian Air Force (IAF) with an indigenously-designed beyond visual range (BVR) air-to-air missile to equip the IAF’s Mirage 2000, MiG-29, Su-30MKI and the future Light Combat Aircraft (LCA). Astra is amongst the DRDO’s biggest technological challenges. India's Meteor or Tomhawk BVRAAM, the Astra missile programme is headed by DRDO since 2003. Since independence, due to the absence of a low-cost indigenous BVRAAM, the Indian Air Force (IAF) has imported French, Russian and British missiles on its fighters. DRDO is also working on Astra Passive imaging IR seeker variant and is also looking at rocket/ramjet propulsion to provide greater range and enhanced kinematic performance. Astra IR will be capable of operating in lock-on before launch and lock-on after launch modes and IR seeker will allow the missile to autonomously detect, track and lock-on the targets. “The basic Astra design uses a metallic airframe with a long low aspect-ratio wing and a single-stage smokeless rocket motor. After launch, the missile will use a combination of inertial mid-course guidance and/or data-linked targeting updates before it enters its terminal acquisition phase. In a head-on engagement, the Astra will have a maximum range of 80 km. The missile’s onboard radio-frequency seeker has been largely designed in India but currently incorporates Ku-band 'Agat' seeker (also used on the RVV-AE, the export version of R-77 missile) imported from Russia. It will have an autonomous homing range of 15 km. The missile’s warhead is a pre-fragmented directional unit, fitted with a proximity fuze. A radar fuze already exists for the Astra, but the DRDO is currently working on a new laser fuze. According to the DRDO, the first ground-launched aerodynamic trials of the Astra will begin within the first half of this year. This will be followed by the next phase of controlled in-flight test launches.” The missile is said to be configured like a longer version of the Super 530D, narrower in front of the wings. This indigenous missile is intended to have performance characteristics similar to the R-77RVV-AE (AA-12), which currently forms part of the IAF’s missile armoury. The Astra is fired from the Russian Vympel launcher – a rail under a fighter aircraft’s wing from which the missile hangs, and is launched. The Vympel launcher is integrated with all 4 of India’s current generation fighters --- the Su-30MKI, MiG-29, Mirage 2000 and the Tejas – allowing the Astra to be fired from all of them. A typical Astra BVRAAM engagement has both the launcher and the target moving at speeds in excess of 1,000 km/hr. This missile’s seeker head – a key component of most tactical missiles – is still imported. With the Indian Air Force operating 600-700 fighter aircraft, there will be a need for several thousand Astra missiles. With air-to-air missiles costing in the region of $2 million each. Astra components that the DRDO has successfully developed indigenously include the data link between aircraft and missile, its on-board computer, inertial navigation system, the radio proximity fuze, and the fibre-optic gyroscope. Eventually, Ku-band seekers imported from Russia will be replaced with new-generation Ka-band seekers with greater seeker sensitivity & accuracy. A Ka-band seeker is being locally developed, but will take a decade to be usable. Development of this missile is likely to take about 7 to 8 years. Unconfirmed reports state that the first ground-launched ballistic tests of the Astra airframe are planned for 2003. The Mirage 2000H has been designated as the first potential platform for the Astra when the weapon enters service at the end of this decade. A young team of DRDO engineers, aged between 25 and 35, was behind Astra’s 3 consecutive successes. They “struck a balance between the stability, controllability and agility of the missile, its vehicle dynamics, control algorithms and on-board technology”, Project Director, S. Venugopal said. During the tests, the Astra BVR-AAM weapon systems were telemetered for the online performance assessment of all sub-systems, with a focus on the datalink, radio frequency seeker and proximity fuse for end-game performance. | India has already developed a solid-fuel, dual-pulse rocket motor (for an increased sustained range) for Astra Mk-2 will be longer with a range of over 100 km and 160 km when fired from an altitude of 15,000 metres (similar to AIM-120D). Astra-2 design allows a cheaper motor to be burned in segments (pulses) and thus achieves the same effect as the ramjet engine. It will also have a state-of-the-art ring-laser gyro and thrust vectoring controls. Astra-2 project, which began as far back as 2009, is a tech-treat considering the miniaturization of the systems, including on-board computer, data links for transmitter/receiver and rotary electro-mechanical actuators. A smokeless, non-metallized high-specific impulse propellant was developed for the rocket motor. Astra BVRAAM will be ready for its first flight trails from the Indian Air Force's Su-30MKI fighter jet in 2013. Indian defence giant DRDO plans to develop two versions, Astra Mk-1 with range of 50 km & Astra Mk-3 will have Ducted Ramjet propulsion, SFDR motor & range of 100 km. A mother missile acts as a “force multiplier” and to achieve the desired result, each miniaturised missile will have a seeker to ensure its independent motion, irrespective of the mother missile's motion. Seekers, which are of 2 types — radio-frequency and infra-red, enable a missile to acquire, track and home in onto the target. They are required for all tactical missiles (less than 300 km range). The Astra-1 missile uses Ku-band 'Agat' JSC's 9B-1348 active RF seeker (also used on the RVV-AE, the export version of R-77 missile) imported from Russia which will be produced in India through a total transfer-of-technology process. The development programme will see about 100-plus missiles produced initially, thanks to the two variants and different platforms. Eventually, Ku-band seekers will be replaced with new-generation Ka-band seekers with greater seeker sensitivity & accuracy. A Ka-band seeker is being locally developed, but will take a decade to be usable. Unguided rockets are too inaccurate to be used for long-range or precision attacks, and so in the postwar period new air-to-surface missiles (ASMs) were built with guidance systems to provide them with much greater effectiveness. This chapter provides a description of guided tactical ASMs. |
IAF is authorised to stockpile upto 4,000 BVRAAM (from Russina, Ukrainian, and from MBDA) and 6,000 R-73E SRAAM
French MICA IR developed by MBDA fulfills a dual role as a medium as well as short-range missile, but can be equipped only with IAF's Mirage-2000 fleet. It replaces Matra's Super 530D in IAF. In 2019, Mirage 2000 had faced a technical glitch because of which they could not engage PAF F-16 C/D with the MICA missiles. The MICA missile had first been sought by the IAF in 2001, the first only came in 2015. Some 450 to 500 MICA missiles were bought at $2.7 million per piece. While the MICA-RF does have mediocre range compared to the accurate AIM-120C AMRAAM, or even the Russian R-77 used by the IAF’s SU-30MKIs, it’s unique in offering a MICA-IR heat-seeking IR version for a potent medium range ‘no warning’ targeting option. French pilots who used the MICA-IR over Libya report that its sensor alone is a useful input to their systems, and its passive seeker with lock-on after launch means that it can be fired from beyond visual range at enemy aircraft, without creating any warning from the opposing fighter’s radar warning receivers. It is an anti-air multi-target, all weather, fire-and-forget short and medium altitude range missile system. It is intended for use both by air platforms as individual missiles as well as ground units and ships, which can be equipped with the rapid fire MICA Vertical Launch System. It is fitted with a thrust vector control (TVC) system. MICA is unique among Western AAMs as it is built in two interoperable missile versions: the passive dual waveband imaging infrared (IR)-guided MICA IR and the active-guided (active radio frequency) MICA EM, where the type of guidance can be selected at the very last moment before launch, gives the fighter pilot a very flexible and comprehensive all-sector short range to Beyond Visual Range capability. The tactics to evade RF or IR missiles are very different; as a result MICA has become known as the ‘silent killer’ as a targeted aircraft is highly unlikely to pick up that it is under attack. The weapon system has an additional advantage in its LOAL (Lock On After Launch) capability allowing an enemy approaching in the rear sector to be effectively engaged without the need for an ensuing dogfight. Being operable with or without data link target designation updating, according to MBDA, MICA family mix offers BVR multi-target/multi-shoot; enhance short range and maximum flexibility for multi-role/swing-role aircraft. With a 3.1 m length, 112 kg weight, the thrust-vectoring control (VTC) provides an unusual combination of BVR and close combat capability in the same missile. In January 2012, the Indian Ministry of Defence signed a contract for the procurement of 493 MICA AAM for Indian air force’s 51 Mirage 2000H. MICA NG (new generation) missiles will be delivered between 2026 and 2031. Its perhaps the world’s only Air-to-Air Missile with both, rail & ejection launch modes, contained within a single missile casing. The missile also utilizes a new double-pulse rocket motor which will provide additional energy to the missile at the end of its flight to improve manoeuvrability and the ability to intercept targets at long range in the tail-chase mode. MICA NG will have 2 versions:
| While India is well into testing its indigenous Astra BVR missile, its weapons program doesn’t include a close combat missile. Comparable past systems include the Matra Magic II, replaced on the Mirage 2000 with the MICA IR. MiG-21MF-75 with MATRA R-550 Magic II. The similar but slimmer Matra MICA replaces Super 530D. MATRA Magic missile, with its unusual fin configuration, was capable of outflying any other air-to-air missile of its day with the sole exception of the Phoenix. It's Butalane composite propellant rapidly accelerates this missile to an incredible Mach 4.5, and sustains this speed for four seconds until burnout. At this speed the long low-aspect wings are not necessary, as maneuvering is performed by the rather strangely shaped tail surfaces. It is the heavyweight of the Matra line, weighing approximately 529 pounds at launch. China all aspect PL-8 missile (Project Number 8) is legal licensed production of Israel's Rafael Python missile. China in-turn sold some to Iraq. Experience gained it helped China greatly in developing its PL-9 missile, that appears to be designed on the French Matra “Magic” airframe. |
The French R-530D and very capable Magic II, the primary air-to-air missiles which equipped the Mirages, had become obsolete by By 2008. The R-73 was already in service with the IAF's Sukhoi 30s, MiG-29s and MiG-21 'Bison' jets but integrating these onto a Western platform had never been attempted. Without proper algorithms and modified software, the integration of the Russian missile would have been impossible.
Now engineers from the Israeli firm Elbit has successfully integrated Russian R-73 missile to an Israeli DASH helmet-mounted display in a French Mirage 2000 fighter. French and Russians were obviously upset and could raise the cost of the mid-life services of their aircrafts sold to India. During the Kargil war, Israeli engineers had integrated the Litening laser designator pod onto IAF Mirages in 12 days flat to enable laser guided bomb attacks to take place for the first time in the IAF's combat history.
Now engineers from the Israeli firm Elbit has successfully integrated Russian R-73 missile to an Israeli DASH helmet-mounted display in a French Mirage 2000 fighter. French and Russians were obviously upset and could raise the cost of the mid-life services of their aircrafts sold to India. During the Kargil war, Israeli engineers had integrated the Litening laser designator pod onto IAF Mirages in 12 days flat to enable laser guided bomb attacks to take place for the first time in the IAF's combat history.
Iran's long-range Fakour-90 missile is a partial reverse engineered AIM-54 Phoenix, although it's a passive BVRAAM.
Israeli Rafael manufactured Popeye air-to-surface missile is called Crystal Maze Mark-2 by India & AGM-142 by US Navy (USAF calls it Raptor or Have Nap). Because of its modular construction, the seeker (TV or IIR) and warhead (blast-fragmentation or penetrator) options can be configured. A smaller derivative of the Popeye (Have Nap) is called Popeye 2 (Have Lite) by USAF.
R-77 or K-77 missile AMRAAMski (Nato: AA-12 Adder)
The R-77 or K-77 (AA-12 Adder) is an active radar-homing, all-aspect, all-weather, medium-range air-to-air missile (MRAAM) developed by developed by "Vympel" design bureau since 1982. It was intended to replace the R-60 (AA-8) missile. It was believed that it will be the standard Russian fighter aircraft missile, however, it entered service with Russian airforce only in 1994. R-77 was ordered by Russian airforce in small numbers to arm the Su-35S in 2009, followed by larger orders in 2012 and 2015. The missile was exported to India, Malaysia and Peru. The R-77 is currently operational with the IAF's Su-30MKI and MiG-21-Bison, and will be on IAF's to-be-upgraded MiG-29s and 'Tejas' LCA.
The R-77 became a base for the R-77AE featuring extended range and medium-range. R-77-1 contains an active radar-guided seeker, represents a further and almost certainly more significant upgrade to the missile family. It would take a further two decades for it finally to enter service, in about 2015. Like the R-27, R-77-1 is guided to a certain point with the help of a data link. But then it uses an onboard radar to illuminate the target and steers towards it. The host radar system maintains computed target information in case the target breaks the missile's lock-on. If the seeker is jammed, it switches automatically to a passive mode and homes on the source of jamming. In another version of the R-77, a terminal infra-red homing seeker is offered. The use of IR tracking in the terminal mode might be logical because at extended ranges the data link between the launch fighter and the missile might be interrupted, or the host radar may not detect jamming.
It represented Russia first fully multi-purpose missile made for both tactical and strategic aircraft for fire-and-forget employment against everything from hovering helicopters to high speed, low altitude aircraft. Similar to the AIM-120 AMRAAM it gives the pilot a certain "fire and forget" capability. The R-77 is bigger than the AIM-120B, has more manoeuvrability and carries more powerful propellant. It can also be used against medium and long range air-to-air missiles such as the AIM-120 AMRAAM and AIM-54 Phoenix as well as SAMs such as the Patriot. The range of the R-77 is 50km which puts it in the long-range class and is equivalent to that of the AIM-54 Phoenix.
RVV-SD is the upgraded version of RVV-AE missile and has a redesigned Agat seeker. The R-77-1 is completed with a different engine and has a greater weight. Relying on official sources, the R-77 has a range of fire in 200 kilometers. The upgraded R77AE is RVV-MD (R-74) which has a range of 40 km. NATO countries designated it as the AA-12 "Adder". One more interesting detail is that it's NATO unofficial designation is "AMRAAMski". K-77M is intended for Su-57 and to match up to the AIM-120D and the PL-15, while the R-77PD & K-77ME are meant to take on the ramjet approach.
The PLAAF received a small number of the Vymple R-77E (AA-12 Adder) MRAAM in 2001 along with the first batch of the Su-30MKK fighter it ordered from Russia. The missiles are the result of a deal China signed with Russia in 2000 in order to arm Sukhoi Su-30MK two-seater multi-role fighters it bought. While the program, called Project 129 or R129, draw on critical technologies from the R-77, it had an indigenously developed airframe. It was also coupled with a Chinese propulsion unit.
R77 is known to be a poor choice for a long-range missile. The missile’s speed is limited to Mach 3 due to excessive nose-cone heating. Ever since that Indian batch of R-77E went bad, there hasn't been much demand for it. A decade ago, China realized that the Russian R77 was unreliable and development a clone locally, the PL12 missile, using superior and more reliable electronics. The PL-12 entered service in around 2005.
China has since put an improved missile, the PL-15 into service, after gaining data access to AIM-120 tech. The standard for beyond-visual-range missile is the AIM-120 ($1.5 million) AMRAAM that entered service in 1992. The latest AIM-120c (range of 160 kms) victim was an Indian MiG-21, shot down by an AMRAAM launched by a Pakistani F-16. Israel offered a less expensive missile to India which is a bit smaller and lighter, with a range of 50km to max range 70-100 kms.
The R-77’s unique “potato masher” fins at the rear provides lower drag at supersonic speeds than large fins, and are able to cause the missile to turn much faster at 12G, which is significantly more than most crewed aircraft at 9G. R77 has rectangular narrow span wings and a distinctive set of four rectangular control surfaces at the rear, similar to the configuration used on the terminal control fins of the SS-21 'Scarab' and SS-23 'Spider' ballistic missiles.
These unique control surfaces feature reduced flow separation at high angles of attack, producing greater aerodynamic moment force than conventional control surfaces. The missile can also be used from internal carriages, where the control fins and surfaces will fold flat until it is catapulted clear of the aircraft for motor ignition. Latest generation fighters are to utilize the R-77 from internal carriage, where the control fins and surfaces will fold flat until the missile is catapulted clear of the aircraft for motor ignition.
The R-77 or K-77 (AA-12 Adder) is an active radar-homing, all-aspect, all-weather, medium-range air-to-air missile (MRAAM) developed by developed by "Vympel" design bureau since 1982. It was intended to replace the R-60 (AA-8) missile. It was believed that it will be the standard Russian fighter aircraft missile, however, it entered service with Russian airforce only in 1994. R-77 was ordered by Russian airforce in small numbers to arm the Su-35S in 2009, followed by larger orders in 2012 and 2015. The missile was exported to India, Malaysia and Peru. The R-77 is currently operational with the IAF's Su-30MKI and MiG-21-Bison, and will be on IAF's to-be-upgraded MiG-29s and 'Tejas' LCA.
The R-77 became a base for the R-77AE featuring extended range and medium-range. R-77-1 contains an active radar-guided seeker, represents a further and almost certainly more significant upgrade to the missile family. It would take a further two decades for it finally to enter service, in about 2015. Like the R-27, R-77-1 is guided to a certain point with the help of a data link. But then it uses an onboard radar to illuminate the target and steers towards it. The host radar system maintains computed target information in case the target breaks the missile's lock-on. If the seeker is jammed, it switches automatically to a passive mode and homes on the source of jamming. In another version of the R-77, a terminal infra-red homing seeker is offered. The use of IR tracking in the terminal mode might be logical because at extended ranges the data link between the launch fighter and the missile might be interrupted, or the host radar may not detect jamming.
It represented Russia first fully multi-purpose missile made for both tactical and strategic aircraft for fire-and-forget employment against everything from hovering helicopters to high speed, low altitude aircraft. Similar to the AIM-120 AMRAAM it gives the pilot a certain "fire and forget" capability. The R-77 is bigger than the AIM-120B, has more manoeuvrability and carries more powerful propellant. It can also be used against medium and long range air-to-air missiles such as the AIM-120 AMRAAM and AIM-54 Phoenix as well as SAMs such as the Patriot. The range of the R-77 is 50km which puts it in the long-range class and is equivalent to that of the AIM-54 Phoenix.
RVV-SD is the upgraded version of RVV-AE missile and has a redesigned Agat seeker. The R-77-1 is completed with a different engine and has a greater weight. Relying on official sources, the R-77 has a range of fire in 200 kilometers. The upgraded R77AE is RVV-MD (R-74) which has a range of 40 km. NATO countries designated it as the AA-12 "Adder". One more interesting detail is that it's NATO unofficial designation is "AMRAAMski". K-77M is intended for Su-57 and to match up to the AIM-120D and the PL-15, while the R-77PD & K-77ME are meant to take on the ramjet approach.
The PLAAF received a small number of the Vymple R-77E (AA-12 Adder) MRAAM in 2001 along with the first batch of the Su-30MKK fighter it ordered from Russia. The missiles are the result of a deal China signed with Russia in 2000 in order to arm Sukhoi Su-30MK two-seater multi-role fighters it bought. While the program, called Project 129 or R129, draw on critical technologies from the R-77, it had an indigenously developed airframe. It was also coupled with a Chinese propulsion unit.
R77 is known to be a poor choice for a long-range missile. The missile’s speed is limited to Mach 3 due to excessive nose-cone heating. Ever since that Indian batch of R-77E went bad, there hasn't been much demand for it. A decade ago, China realized that the Russian R77 was unreliable and development a clone locally, the PL12 missile, using superior and more reliable electronics. The PL-12 entered service in around 2005.
China has since put an improved missile, the PL-15 into service, after gaining data access to AIM-120 tech. The standard for beyond-visual-range missile is the AIM-120 ($1.5 million) AMRAAM that entered service in 1992. The latest AIM-120c (range of 160 kms) victim was an Indian MiG-21, shot down by an AMRAAM launched by a Pakistani F-16. Israel offered a less expensive missile to India which is a bit smaller and lighter, with a range of 50km to max range 70-100 kms.
The R-77’s unique “potato masher” fins at the rear provides lower drag at supersonic speeds than large fins, and are able to cause the missile to turn much faster at 12G, which is significantly more than most crewed aircraft at 9G. R77 has rectangular narrow span wings and a distinctive set of four rectangular control surfaces at the rear, similar to the configuration used on the terminal control fins of the SS-21 'Scarab' and SS-23 'Spider' ballistic missiles.
These unique control surfaces feature reduced flow separation at high angles of attack, producing greater aerodynamic moment force than conventional control surfaces. The missile can also be used from internal carriages, where the control fins and surfaces will fold flat until it is catapulted clear of the aircraft for motor ignition. Latest generation fighters are to utilize the R-77 from internal carriage, where the control fins and surfaces will fold flat until the missile is catapulted clear of the aircraft for motor ignition.
RVV-BD designations is for the Russian R-37M. R-37M (Axehead) long-range hypersonic missile has an active radar-guided seeker, and is a highly-updated R-33 (Amos) missile. It is more than awacs-killer missile. The missile and its variants also have the names K-37 and RVV-BD. However, the lack of an imaging infrared seeker makes it very vulnerable to modern countermeasures. An improved version of the R-74, the K-74M (for Su-57) has been developed with the range of 35 kms, which features an IIR seeker.
K-74 (the K designator denotes that it has yet to enter service with the Russian Air Force) has an improved infra-red (IR)-seeker than the R-73 (AA-11 Archer) which resulted in a maximum engagement range is improved by around 30%. (R-73 seeker can see targets up to 40° off the missile’s centreline. Minimum engagement range is about 300 meters, with maximum aerodynamic range of nearly 30 km at altitude.) But both have the same basic airframe. K-74M, is intended to match the performance of the MBDA UK’s AIM-132 ASRAAM and the AIM-9X Sidewinder. The follow-on K-74K-MD is intended to outperform the MBDA UK’s AIM-132 ASRAAM and AIM-9X Sidewinder.
Iran also has copies of IR-guided supersonic, heat-seeking AIM-9P Sidewinder.
Starting with the Shafrir series, the Shafrir-1 missile was developed in 1959, followed by the Shafrir-2 in early 1970s. Subsequently, the missiles were given the western name of "Python" by the parent company for export purposes, starting with the Python-3 in 1978. The missile was adapted from the US ALM-9L Sidewinder heat-seeking missile and has a high degree of US technology. In 1980s Israel sold Python-3 to China. China all aspect PL-8 missile (Project Number 8) is legal licensed production of Israel's Rafael Python-3 missile. China in-turn sold some to Iraq. Experience gained it helped China greatly in developing its PL-9 missile, that appears to be designed on the French Matra “Magic” airframe.
Since then, Israel's Python missile has been further developed and evolved into the Python-4, Python-5, Derby and also, the SPYDER, an advanced ground-based air-defence system. Though technically not part of the "Python" family, the missile is basically an enlarged Python-4 with an active-radar seeker. The Python-4 is a 4th generation AAM with all-aspect attack ability, and integration with a helmet-mounted sight (HMS) system.
Israel's IIR-guided Python-5 is a fifth generation air-to-air missile (AAM) manufactured by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems. The missile can engage enemy aircraft from very short ranges and near beyond visual range. Python-5 is one of the most accurate and reliable AAM and most sophisticated guided missiles in the world. It has advanced Infrared Counter-Counter-Measures (IRCCM). It has high resistance against countermeasures and can be integrated with wide range of aircrafts.
Its new dual-band waveband Focal Plane Array (FPA) imaging seeker gives superior detection range, improved target discrimination against background clutter and a lower false target acquisition rate. Python-5 is powered by a solid propellant rocket engine. The propulsion system provides a speed of Mach 4 and an operational range of more than 20km. The Python-5 has many more control surfaces than the ASRAAM, which is a problem. It’s also 15-20 kg heavier than the ASRAAM, which is another problem for platforms where weight is a major issue.
Israel offering a less expensive missile to India that is a bit smaller and lighter, with a range of 50km to max range 70-100 kms. Israeli Python-5 offers Lock-on After Launch (LOAL) and also off-boresight capability of greater than 90 degrees as compared to 60 degrees on the R-73 heat seeking air to air missile (with a sensitive, dual band cryogenic cooled seeker with a substantial off-boresight capability).
Since then, Israel's Python missile has been further developed and evolved into the Python-4, Python-5, Derby and also, the SPYDER, an advanced ground-based air-defence system. Though technically not part of the "Python" family, the missile is basically an enlarged Python-4 with an active-radar seeker. The Python-4 is a 4th generation AAM with all-aspect attack ability, and integration with a helmet-mounted sight (HMS) system.
Israel's IIR-guided Python-5 is a fifth generation air-to-air missile (AAM) manufactured by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems. The missile can engage enemy aircraft from very short ranges and near beyond visual range. Python-5 is one of the most accurate and reliable AAM and most sophisticated guided missiles in the world. It has advanced Infrared Counter-Counter-Measures (IRCCM). It has high resistance against countermeasures and can be integrated with wide range of aircrafts.
Its new dual-band waveband Focal Plane Array (FPA) imaging seeker gives superior detection range, improved target discrimination against background clutter and a lower false target acquisition rate. Python-5 is powered by a solid propellant rocket engine. The propulsion system provides a speed of Mach 4 and an operational range of more than 20km. The Python-5 has many more control surfaces than the ASRAAM, which is a problem. It’s also 15-20 kg heavier than the ASRAAM, which is another problem for platforms where weight is a major issue.
Israel offering a less expensive missile to India that is a bit smaller and lighter, with a range of 50km to max range 70-100 kms. Israeli Python-5 offers Lock-on After Launch (LOAL) and also off-boresight capability of greater than 90 degrees as compared to 60 degrees on the R-73 heat seeking air to air missile (with a sensitive, dual band cryogenic cooled seeker with a substantial off-boresight capability).
In common with the Aspide Mk 1, and unlike the AIM-7E, the PL-11 has an inverse monopulse seeker, which should make it more accurate and less susceptible to electronic countermeasures. Pi-Li (PL) means thunderbolt. HQ-6 / PL-10 SAM is a ground-to-air version of the PL-11 air-to-air missile which is largely based on Ukraine's Gran (Verge) missile by Luch State Design Bureau and Italian Selenia Aspide missile (similar to AIM-7 Sparrow missile). It is also called as LY-60 / FD-60 SAM. HQ-6D / HQ-64 SAM is further improvement of HQ-6, utilizing the experience gained from LY-60, with the firepower doubled when the number of missiles for each truck mounted launcher is increased from two to four, and MLR is replaced by TELs. Both the missile and TELs are smaller and directly developed from LY-60.
AARGM-ER missile (2020) is equipped with a software-defined active radar seeker, which activates the warhead, doing away with any manner of proximity fuse. This creates additional space for the rocket propellent, which boosts the range.
In the future, the long range AIM-260 Joint Air Tactical Missile (JATM) is set to replace AIM-120 in the US, enabling it to counter the Chinese PL-15 and match the European Meteor (which has two-way data-link) and thanks to its ramjet-propulsion has a great deal of energy, even at the outer extremes of its flight profile, allowing it to chase manoeuvring targets at extreme ranges. The AIM-260 will not use a ramjet-motor like the Meteor. AIM-120D3 used model-based systems engineering and other digital technologies to upgrade multiple circuit cards and hardware in the guidance section of the missile.
Meteor is guided by the on-board AESA radar until the terminal stage, when the Meteor's own active seeker takes over.
In the future, the long range AIM-260 Joint Air Tactical Missile (JATM) is set to replace AIM-120 in the US, enabling it to counter the Chinese PL-15 and match the European Meteor (which has two-way data-link) and thanks to its ramjet-propulsion has a great deal of energy, even at the outer extremes of its flight profile, allowing it to chase manoeuvring targets at extreme ranges. The AIM-260 will not use a ramjet-motor like the Meteor. AIM-120D3 used model-based systems engineering and other digital technologies to upgrade multiple circuit cards and hardware in the guidance section of the missile.
Meteor is guided by the on-board AESA radar until the terminal stage, when the Meteor's own active seeker takes over.
Sidewinder didn’t just offer a new approach to engaging enemy aircraft, it was also a simpler design than the radar-guided missiles in service. It was about half the weight of the U.K.’s Fireflash missile and less than a third the weight of America’s Firebird missile. William B. McLean and his team were working with lead-sulfide proximity fuzes that detonated when it sensed infrared radiation (heat) and also develop a self-guidance system that used that same heat-sensing ability to adjust course mid-flight. The most important feature of the design was the ability to use the targeting system not to aim directly at a target, but rather at where the target would be when its path intersected with the missile.
The US Navy modify Sabres to carry the newly introduced AIM-9 Sidewinder missile in response to Chinese Mig-17s. One of the missiles becoming lodged in a MiG-17 without exploding, allowing it to be removed after landing. China's attempts to reverse engineer the AIM-9B failed.
The PRC transferred the missile to the Soviet Union, which agreed to share the reverse engineered product; in 1961, the PRC received technical data for and examples of the Vympel K-13 as a part of MiG-21 fighter jet deal in 1962. The Vympel K-13 (and therefore the PL-2) were based on the AIM-9. PL-5 is upgraded PL-2.
Pakistan's (above) AIM-120-C5 AMRAAM and (below) AIM-9 Sidewinder (counterpart to R-77)
The best Western air-to-air missile after the Meteor and the standard for beyond-visual-range missile is the AIM-120 ($1.5 million) AMRAAM that entered service in 1992. Raytheon’s deadly accurate AIM-120C7 Advanced, Medium-Range Air to Air Missile (AMRAAM) F3R (Form Fit Function Refresh hardware) has become the world market leader for medium range air-to-air missiles, and is also beginning to make inroads within land-based defense systems. The F3R hardware, including new circuit cards and guidance components, allows for significantly enhanced processing power, which SIP-3F software leverages for its algorithms. The latest AIM-120c (range of 160 km and 10%-15% extra range) victim was an Indian MiG-21, which was baited into a trap and was shot down by an AMRAAM launched by a Pakistani F-16 (one of the handful of advanced Block 52 F-16C/D). However, it could not hit any high-maneuverable Su-30MK which were equipped with jammers and flares since the single missile lacked guidance updates via a datalink. India has several UK-made AIM-132 ASRAAM from MBDA.
It was re-designed with the lessons of Vietnam in mind, and of local air combat exercises like ACEVAL and Red Flag. Vietnam provided ample evidence that AIM-7 wasn't really ready for prime time. Too many things could go wrong. Several versions later, the AIM-7 got another combat test during the 1991 Gulf War. While 88 AIM 7s were launched, with only 28% scored a hit. The AIM 9 Sidewinder did worse, with 97 fired and only 12.6% making contact.
AMRAAM entered service in 1992 to fix all the reliability and ease-of-use problems that cursed the AIM-7. But AMRAAM has only had a few opportunities to be used in combat, but over half of those launched have been extremely accurate when launch at short distance and low altitude. The AIM-120D version entered service five years ago, has longer range, greater accuracy, and resistance to countermeasures. So far AMRAAMs have spent nearly 2 million hours hanging from the wings of jet fighters in flight. These missiles cost about a million dollars each. They are complex mechanical, electronic, and chemical systems and each of them, on average, suffers a component failure every 1,500 hours.
The ubiquitous AIM-9 Sidewinder is without doubt the most important heat-seeking missile of the last three decades, seeing service in every engagement between Western powers and their adversaries since the 1950s. Copied by the Communists as the K-13/AA-2 Atoll, the Sidewinder has had a profound influence on the design of modern heat-seekers and is much the yardstick against which such missiles are judged today. MBDA UK’s AIM-132 ASRAAM, RAFAEL of Israel’s Python 5, the multinational German-led IRIS-T, and Russia’s R73 (AA-11) Archer. So far, only American fighter types can use AIM-9X missiles because the AIM-9X is all-digital and aircraft that want to fire it need integration work to make them fully compatible, but that hasn't stopped a slew of export requests and sales, especially in the Middle East.
The AIM-9M is a long-term performer in the Sidewinder family of missiles. The AIM-9M is a cost-effective, infrared-tracking, short-range, air-to-air missile adaptable to multiple applications. The M model has improved capability against infrared countermeasures, enhanced background discrimination capability, and a reduced-smoke rocket motor. These modifications increase its ability to locate and lock-on to a target and decrease the missile's chances for detection.
The UK working with the aft end of the ASRAAM and Germany developing the seeker (Germany had first-hand experience improving the Sidewinder seeker of the AIM-9J or AIM-9F). By 1990, technical and funding issues had stymied ASRAAM and the problem appeared stalled so in light of the threat of AA-11 and improved IRCM, the US embarked on determining requirements for AIM-9X as a counter to both the AA-11 and improving the IRCCM features. The first draft of the requirement was ready by 1991 and the primary competitors were Raytheon and Hughes. Later, the UK resolved to revive the ASRAAM development and selected Hughes to provide the seeker technology in the form of a high off-boresight capable Focal Plane Array.
The AIM-9X is the newest member in the family of AIM-9 Sidewinder short-range missiles produced by Raytheon, and it replaces the AIM-9M and includes a lock-on-after-launch feature. It is an infrared air-to-air missile primarily developed for the US Air Force and the US Navy. The AIM-9X features a fifth generation staring focal plane array IR seeker with a High Off-Boresight (HOBS) capability. AIM-9X is an advanced IR missile. It is mounted on a highly maneuverable (thrust vectored) airframe, along with digital guidance and IR signal processing that results in enhanced acquisition ranges, greatly improved infrared counter-countermeasures capability, a unidirectional forward-quarter data-link and extremely high off-boresight engagement zones for unprecedented first shot/first kill air-to-air performance. The AIM-9X is currently in service with over 40 countries across the world.
The Block II is the latest version of the air-to-air anti-aircraft combat missile, built by war technology giant Raytheon. With the X-2 the pilot can launch the missile before he has located the target via the JHMCS, saving a critical few seconds. On the maintenance end, the AIM-9X avoids the need for argon cooling, and the missiles are field reprogrammable rather than forcing a hardware swap out of the circuit cards. The current Block II AIM-9X already overlaps some of the range capability of Raytheon's powerful 180 kms AIM-120D AMRAAM ($2 million per missile).
Block III to be a supplemental BVR weapon for situations where friendly fighters are faced with electronic attacks that degrade with radar-guided weapons: AIM-9X short-range AAM Block III has evolved towards a long-range weapon system capable to overlap the range of the AMRAAM missile in order to overcome the adversary advanced digital radio frequency memory (DRFM) jammers being used against AMRAAM BVRAAM active RF seeker guidance. “DRFM jammers have the potential to blind the AMRAAM’s onboard radar, which makes the AIM-9X’s passive imaging infra-red guidance system a useful alternative means to defeat those threats.
The best Western air-to-air missile after the Meteor and the standard for beyond-visual-range missile is the AIM-120 ($1.5 million) AMRAAM that entered service in 1992. Raytheon’s deadly accurate AIM-120C7 Advanced, Medium-Range Air to Air Missile (AMRAAM) F3R (Form Fit Function Refresh hardware) has become the world market leader for medium range air-to-air missiles, and is also beginning to make inroads within land-based defense systems. The F3R hardware, including new circuit cards and guidance components, allows for significantly enhanced processing power, which SIP-3F software leverages for its algorithms. The latest AIM-120c (range of 160 km and 10%-15% extra range) victim was an Indian MiG-21, which was baited into a trap and was shot down by an AMRAAM launched by a Pakistani F-16 (one of the handful of advanced Block 52 F-16C/D). However, it could not hit any high-maneuverable Su-30MK which were equipped with jammers and flares since the single missile lacked guidance updates via a datalink. India has several UK-made AIM-132 ASRAAM from MBDA.
It was re-designed with the lessons of Vietnam in mind, and of local air combat exercises like ACEVAL and Red Flag. Vietnam provided ample evidence that AIM-7 wasn't really ready for prime time. Too many things could go wrong. Several versions later, the AIM-7 got another combat test during the 1991 Gulf War. While 88 AIM 7s were launched, with only 28% scored a hit. The AIM 9 Sidewinder did worse, with 97 fired and only 12.6% making contact.
AMRAAM entered service in 1992 to fix all the reliability and ease-of-use problems that cursed the AIM-7. But AMRAAM has only had a few opportunities to be used in combat, but over half of those launched have been extremely accurate when launch at short distance and low altitude. The AIM-120D version entered service five years ago, has longer range, greater accuracy, and resistance to countermeasures. So far AMRAAMs have spent nearly 2 million hours hanging from the wings of jet fighters in flight. These missiles cost about a million dollars each. They are complex mechanical, electronic, and chemical systems and each of them, on average, suffers a component failure every 1,500 hours.
The ubiquitous AIM-9 Sidewinder is without doubt the most important heat-seeking missile of the last three decades, seeing service in every engagement between Western powers and their adversaries since the 1950s. Copied by the Communists as the K-13/AA-2 Atoll, the Sidewinder has had a profound influence on the design of modern heat-seekers and is much the yardstick against which such missiles are judged today. MBDA UK’s AIM-132 ASRAAM, RAFAEL of Israel’s Python 5, the multinational German-led IRIS-T, and Russia’s R73 (AA-11) Archer. So far, only American fighter types can use AIM-9X missiles because the AIM-9X is all-digital and aircraft that want to fire it need integration work to make them fully compatible, but that hasn't stopped a slew of export requests and sales, especially in the Middle East.
The AIM-9M is a long-term performer in the Sidewinder family of missiles. The AIM-9M is a cost-effective, infrared-tracking, short-range, air-to-air missile adaptable to multiple applications. The M model has improved capability against infrared countermeasures, enhanced background discrimination capability, and a reduced-smoke rocket motor. These modifications increase its ability to locate and lock-on to a target and decrease the missile's chances for detection.
The UK working with the aft end of the ASRAAM and Germany developing the seeker (Germany had first-hand experience improving the Sidewinder seeker of the AIM-9J or AIM-9F). By 1990, technical and funding issues had stymied ASRAAM and the problem appeared stalled so in light of the threat of AA-11 and improved IRCM, the US embarked on determining requirements for AIM-9X as a counter to both the AA-11 and improving the IRCCM features. The first draft of the requirement was ready by 1991 and the primary competitors were Raytheon and Hughes. Later, the UK resolved to revive the ASRAAM development and selected Hughes to provide the seeker technology in the form of a high off-boresight capable Focal Plane Array.
The AIM-9X is the newest member in the family of AIM-9 Sidewinder short-range missiles produced by Raytheon, and it replaces the AIM-9M and includes a lock-on-after-launch feature. It is an infrared air-to-air missile primarily developed for the US Air Force and the US Navy. The AIM-9X features a fifth generation staring focal plane array IR seeker with a High Off-Boresight (HOBS) capability. AIM-9X is an advanced IR missile. It is mounted on a highly maneuverable (thrust vectored) airframe, along with digital guidance and IR signal processing that results in enhanced acquisition ranges, greatly improved infrared counter-countermeasures capability, a unidirectional forward-quarter data-link and extremely high off-boresight engagement zones for unprecedented first shot/first kill air-to-air performance. The AIM-9X is currently in service with over 40 countries across the world.
The Block II is the latest version of the air-to-air anti-aircraft combat missile, built by war technology giant Raytheon. With the X-2 the pilot can launch the missile before he has located the target via the JHMCS, saving a critical few seconds. On the maintenance end, the AIM-9X avoids the need for argon cooling, and the missiles are field reprogrammable rather than forcing a hardware swap out of the circuit cards. The current Block II AIM-9X already overlaps some of the range capability of Raytheon's powerful 180 kms AIM-120D AMRAAM ($2 million per missile).
Block III to be a supplemental BVR weapon for situations where friendly fighters are faced with electronic attacks that degrade with radar-guided weapons: AIM-9X short-range AAM Block III has evolved towards a long-range weapon system capable to overlap the range of the AMRAAM missile in order to overcome the adversary advanced digital radio frequency memory (DRFM) jammers being used against AMRAAM BVRAAM active RF seeker guidance. “DRFM jammers have the potential to blind the AMRAAM’s onboard radar, which makes the AIM-9X’s passive imaging infra-red guidance system a useful alternative means to defeat those threats.
In 2011 Norway discovered that the ATK ammunition manufacturer's AIM-120 missiles & Sparrow missiles, rocket motor were defective. The problem here was that when the rocket motors were exposed to very cold conditions (as would happen when an aircraft is flying at a high altitude) they become unreliable. It was caused by changes in the formula for the rocket propellant to comply with environmental regulations. This caused delays in deliveries to Taiwan, the UAE, Finland, South Korea, Morocco, Chile, Jordan, Kuwait, Singapore, and Turkey. It took over two years to sort all this out. Raytheon added some warranty and financial sweeteners for impatient customers waiting for their long delayed missiles. The military accuses the manufacturers of cosy up to members of Congress. Cancelling orders and taking manufacturers to court has not eliminated the problems.
The reticle seeker is the most common optical system design employed in conventional heat seeking missiles. Invented by the Germans during the latter phase of WW2, the reticle seeker provides a means of using a single detector element to produce an error signal in rectangular coordinates, with respect to a point target somewhere within the cone which represents the field of view of the seeker. But German Ruhrstahl X-4, air-to-air rockets, had never proven particularly effective.
The U.S. Naval Ordnance Test Station at China Lake in California’s Mojave Desert, a few dozen gadgeteers under physicist William B. McLean were toying with lead-sulfide proximity fuzes that were sensitive to the infrared radiation generated by heat. China Lake’s directive was R&D, not weapon design, and critics derisively referred to his lab as “McLean’s Hobby Shop.” But that didn't stop his little team from completely revolutionizing air warfare.
The final design was indeed simple: a parabolic mirror spinning gyroscopically at 4,200 rpm inside the rocket’s transparent nose. The distance of an infrared blip’s reflection from the axis of spin indicated its angle-off; current from the centrally mounted lead-sulfide detector kept the “eye” on target via electromagnets around its rim and controlled the missile’s canard guide fins. Since missile roll would interfere with the gyro’s spin, on the fly McLean’s team invented “rollerons”—tailfin-mounted, airstream-driven gyro wheels whose spin counteracted the missile’s. The crowning touch, however, was wiring the seeker to aim not where the target was, but where it would be. In dogfights, the missile itself would take on enemy aircraft on their own terms: seek them out, run them down and outmaneuver them to make the kill.
Just 5 years later, under the code name “Operation Black Magic,” Americans in F-100 Super Sabres were simulating Red Chinese Frescos, teaching Taiwanese Nationalist pilots “pitch-up” Sidewinder launches against high-altitude targets. The new MiG-17 “Fresco” pilots were about to get a nasty surprise. In late September the Sabres took on new, American-supplied weaponry—needle-like, 9-foot-long rockets that were barb-tipped and finned, with delicate glass noses instead of steel warheads. The new rocket had no wires, no radio, no way for the pilot to guide it after launch. Yet, it was equipped with movable fins. It could change course. For the Taiwanese pilots, the conclusion was inescapable, if unbelievable: The Americans had created a missile that could seek out and destroy the enemy on its own.
Russian Novator K-100 BVRAAM aka R-172, previously designated KS-172, is an ultra-long-range AAM based on the air-frame of the 9K37M1 Buk-M surface-to-air missile with an adaptive High-Explosive fragmentation warhead.
To Target AEW/AWAC Type High Value Aircrafts, tanker, and maritime patrol aircraft, giving an air force the ability to attack these vital assets without having to engage their fighter escorts. Enhanced-range versions have also been suggested as possible anti-satellite weapons.
The K-100 has an enlarged (350 mm or 14 in) derivative of the Agat 9B-1103M seeker used in the Vympel R-27 (AA-10 'Alamo'). It has a lock-on range of 40 km, described by an Agat designer as "one fifth or less of the overall range".
(previously, the missile has had various names, including Izdeliye 172, AAM-L (RVV-L), KS–172, KS-1, 172S-1 and R-172 but development stalled in the mid-1990s for lack of funds.)
To Target AEW/AWAC Type High Value Aircrafts, tanker, and maritime patrol aircraft, giving an air force the ability to attack these vital assets without having to engage their fighter escorts. Enhanced-range versions have also been suggested as possible anti-satellite weapons.
The K-100 has an enlarged (350 mm or 14 in) derivative of the Agat 9B-1103M seeker used in the Vympel R-27 (AA-10 'Alamo'). It has a lock-on range of 40 km, described by an Agat designer as "one fifth or less of the overall range".
(previously, the missile has had various names, including Izdeliye 172, AAM-L (RVV-L), KS–172, KS-1, 172S-1 and R-172 but development stalled in the mid-1990s for lack of funds.)
R-27E-T1 is a medium range, semi-active radar guided missile that has a max range of 60 to 72 kms. It is powered by a single two-mode solid rocket, providing a top speed of Mach 4 and increased range compared to R-27R1.
R-27E-R1 has a longer range of 100 km, aimed at engaging Western AEW&C aircrafts. The operational status is unknown. Compared to the basic R-27R, it is wider at the two-mode solid rocket section.
All R-27 versions have a minimum range of fire in 0.5 - 1 km and carry 39 kg weight expanding rod warheads. R-27 (AA-10 Alamo) "Vympel" is a medium-range air-to-air missile, originally designed to fit the last generation of Soviet Air Force air defense fighter aircraft such as Mig-23, Mig-29 and Su-27 deployed in the 1980s. The R-27 provides unique capabilities. This missile was also designed as a counterweight for the United States F-15 fighters armed with the AIM-7F "Sparrow" missiles. It gives a range less than 120Km to a missile that is mated to the OLS on the MKI (compared to R-77s 80Km range). The R-27 is manufactured in infrared-homing (R-27T), semi-active-radar-homing (R-27R), and active-radar-homing (R-27AE) versions, in both Russia and Ukraine. MAWS can easily defeat IIR-homing R-27T missile, and AESA-based jammers are also available.
The R-27 is an older missile type, but it has upgraded seekers, and an upgraded rocket motor, giving it a much longer range than before. MiG-29Ks cannot carry heavy A2A missiles like the Novator or the RVV-BD (R-77), so this R-27 buy is a stopgap measure while the armed forces await the Astra and the ramjet-Adder. As to why the R-27 was bought; For one, it is a long range A2A missile that is still potent against bulkier targets and possibly older fighter-types that neighbouring airforces operates. For another, the IN Air Arm, like the IAF, seems to be training of a Russian-type of doctrine, where you overwhelm enemies with multiple types of missiles. A typical A2A load-out would see the aircraft equipped with 2-4 R-73s, and an equal mix of R-27s and R-77s. An active radar homing R-77 and a heat-seeking R-27 would be fired in tandem to taken down the enemy aircraft with a two-fold attack.
The R-27 missiles are intended to intercept and defeat aircraft and helicopters of all types, unmanned reconnaissance aircraft and cruise missiles under active enemy electronic jamming, counteractions and manoeuvring. There are produced some variants of the AA-10 "Alamo" with two different seeker types - semi-active radar-homing and infrared, and two types of engines - with standard and extended range engine. The R-27 missiles have a modular design, thus the missile can be easily converted from semi-active radar-homing to infrared just replacing the seeker module. The Chinese versions have a different active radar seeker taken from the Vympel R-77 missile.
CHINA: Imported Russian R-27 / AA-10 Alamo, R-73 / AA-11 Archer and R-77 / AA-12 Adder AAMs are primarily used with the imported Russian built Su-27SK / J-11A and Su-30MKK/MK3 Flankers.
R-27E-R1 has a longer range of 100 km, aimed at engaging Western AEW&C aircrafts. The operational status is unknown. Compared to the basic R-27R, it is wider at the two-mode solid rocket section.
All R-27 versions have a minimum range of fire in 0.5 - 1 km and carry 39 kg weight expanding rod warheads. R-27 (AA-10 Alamo) "Vympel" is a medium-range air-to-air missile, originally designed to fit the last generation of Soviet Air Force air defense fighter aircraft such as Mig-23, Mig-29 and Su-27 deployed in the 1980s. The R-27 provides unique capabilities. This missile was also designed as a counterweight for the United States F-15 fighters armed with the AIM-7F "Sparrow" missiles. It gives a range less than 120Km to a missile that is mated to the OLS on the MKI (compared to R-77s 80Km range). The R-27 is manufactured in infrared-homing (R-27T), semi-active-radar-homing (R-27R), and active-radar-homing (R-27AE) versions, in both Russia and Ukraine. MAWS can easily defeat IIR-homing R-27T missile, and AESA-based jammers are also available.
The R-27 is an older missile type, but it has upgraded seekers, and an upgraded rocket motor, giving it a much longer range than before. MiG-29Ks cannot carry heavy A2A missiles like the Novator or the RVV-BD (R-77), so this R-27 buy is a stopgap measure while the armed forces await the Astra and the ramjet-Adder. As to why the R-27 was bought; For one, it is a long range A2A missile that is still potent against bulkier targets and possibly older fighter-types that neighbouring airforces operates. For another, the IN Air Arm, like the IAF, seems to be training of a Russian-type of doctrine, where you overwhelm enemies with multiple types of missiles. A typical A2A load-out would see the aircraft equipped with 2-4 R-73s, and an equal mix of R-27s and R-77s. An active radar homing R-77 and a heat-seeking R-27 would be fired in tandem to taken down the enemy aircraft with a two-fold attack.
The R-27 missiles are intended to intercept and defeat aircraft and helicopters of all types, unmanned reconnaissance aircraft and cruise missiles under active enemy electronic jamming, counteractions and manoeuvring. There are produced some variants of the AA-10 "Alamo" with two different seeker types - semi-active radar-homing and infrared, and two types of engines - with standard and extended range engine. The R-27 missiles have a modular design, thus the missile can be easily converted from semi-active radar-homing to infrared just replacing the seeker module. The Chinese versions have a different active radar seeker taken from the Vympel R-77 missile.
CHINA: Imported Russian R-27 / AA-10 Alamo, R-73 / AA-11 Archer and R-77 / AA-12 Adder AAMs are primarily used with the imported Russian built Su-27SK / J-11A and Su-30MKK/MK3 Flankers.
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